8.

Excretion
EVALUATION: (TEXT BOOK QUESTIONS)
1. Concentration of urine depends upon which part of the nephron
a. Bowman’s capsule b. Length of Henle’s loop
c. P.C.T. d. Net work of capillaries arising from glomerulus
2. If Henle’s loop were absent from mammalian nephron, which one of the following is
to be expected?
a. There will be no urine formation
b. There will be hardly any change in the quality and quantity of urine formed
c. The urine will be more concentrated d. The urine will be more dilute
3. What will happen if the stretch receptors of the urinary bladder wall are totally
removed?
a. Micturition will continue b. Urine will be continue to collect normally in the bladder
c. there will be micturition d. urine will not collection the bladder
4. The end product of Ornithine cycle is
a. carbon dioxide b. uric acid c. urea d. ammonia
5. Identify the wrong match
a. Bowman’s capsule – Glomerular filteration b. DCT - Absorption of glucose
c. Henle’s loop – Concentration of urine d. PCT - Absorption of Na+ and K+ ions
6. Podocytes are the cells present on the
a. Outer wall of Bowman’s capsule b. Inner wall of Bowman’s capsule
c. neck of nephron d. Wall glomerular capillaries
7. Glomerular filtrate contains
a. Blood without blood cells and proteins b. Plasma without sugar
c. Blood with proteins but without cells d. Blood without urea
8. Kidney stones are produced due to deposition of uric acid and
a. silicates b. minerals c. calcium carbonate d. calcium oxalate
9. Animal requiring minimum amount of water to produce urine are
a. ureotelic b. ammonotelic c. uricotelic d. chemotelic
10. Aldosterone acts at the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct resulting in the
absorption of water through
a. Aquaphorins b. spectrins c. GLUT d. Chloride channels
11. The hormone which helps in the reabsorption of water in kidney tubules is
a. cholecystokinin b. angiotensin II c. antidiuretic hormone d. pancreozymin
12. Malpighian tubules remove excretory products from
a. mouth b. oesophagus c. haemolymph d. alimentary canal.
13. Arrange the following structures in the order that a drop of water entering the
nephron would encounter them.
1. Afferent arteriole, 2. Bowman‟s capsule, 3. Collecting duct, 4. Distal tubule
5. Glomerulus, 6. Loop of Henle, 7. Proximal tubule, 8. Renal pelvis
1. Afferent arteriole, 2. Glomerulus, 3. Bowman‟s capsule, 4. Proximal tubule,
5. Loop of Henle, 6. Distal tubule, 7. Collecting duct, 8. Renal pelvis
[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 96 | 207
14. Name the three filtration barriers that solutes must come across as they move
from plasma to the lumen of Bowman‟s capsule. What components of the
blood are usually excluded by these layers?
1) Glomerular capillary endothelium – Prevents the blood cells.
2) Basal lamina – Glycoproteins, plasma proteins.
3) Epithelium of bowman‟s capsule.
15. What forces promote glomerular filtration? What forces opposes them? What is
meant by net filtration pressure?
 Net filtration Pressure = Glomerular hydrostatic pressure - (Colloidal osmotic
pressure + Capsular hydrostatic pressure).
 Net filtration pressure = 55 mmHg - (30 mmHg + 15 mmHg) = 10mmHg
 The effective glomerular pressure of 10 mmHg results in ultrafiltration.
16. Identify the following structures and explain their significance in renal physiology?
a. Juxtaglomerular apparatus –
 The ascending limb of Henle returns to the glomerular region of its own nephron,
where it passes through the fork formed by the afferent and efferent arterioles.
 Both the tubular and vascular cells at this point are specialized to form juxta
glomerular apparatus that lie next to the glomerulus.
b. Podocytes –
 The glomerular membrane consists of octopus like cells called podocytes that
entangles the glomerular tuft.
 Each podocyte bears many foot processes.
c. Sphincters in the bladder -
 The urinary bladder is guarding by external and internal sphincters muscles.
 Somatic motor neurons induce the sphincters to close.
 Smooth muscles contracts resulting in the opening of the internal sphincters
passively and relaxing the external sphincter.
 When the stimulatory and inhibitory controls exceed the threshold, the sphincter
opens and the urine is expelled out.
17. In which segment of the nephron most of the re-absorption of substances takes
place?
❖ Reabsorption takes place by the tubular epithelial cells in different segments of the
nephron either by active transport or passive transport, diffusion and osmosis.
❖ Per day nearly 99% of the glomerular filtrate that has to be reabsorbed by the renal
tubules as it contains certain substances needed by the body. This process is called
selective reabsorption.
18. When a molecule or ion is reabsorbed from the lumen of the nephron, where does
it go? If a solute is filtered and not reabsorbed from the tubule, where does it go?
1. When a molecule or ion is reabsorbed from the lumen of the nephron, it goes out of –
Efferent arteriole.
2. If a solute is filtered and not reabsorbed from the tubule, it finally reach the collecting
duct to be sent out as waste in the form of urine.

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 97 | 207

19. Which segment is the site of secretion and regulated reabsorption of ions and pH
homeostasis?
➪ The distal convoluted tubule recovers water and secretes potassium into the tubule.
➪ Na+ , Cl - and water remains in the filtrate of the DCT.
➪ Most of the reabsorption from this point is dependent on the body‟s need and is
regulated by hormones.
➪ Reabsorption of bicarbonate ( HCO3- ) takes place to regulate the blood pH.
➪ Homeostasis of K+ and Na- in the blood is also regulated in this region.
20. What solute is normally present in the body to estimate GFR in humans ?
 Renal clearance is a parameter that reflects the amount of solute passing from the
plasma to the urine in a given period of time.
 If the renal clearance is equal to the GFR it means that there is efficient filtration with
little reabsorption and secretion.
 It is one of the parameters used to identify the efficiency of the kidney.
21. Which part of the autonomic nervous system is involved in micturation process?
✡ The functioning of kidneys is efficiently monitored and regulated by hormonal
feedback control mechanism involving the hypothalamus, juxta glomerular
apparatus and to a certain extent the heart.
✡ Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are activated by changes in the blood volume,
body fluid volume and ionic concentration.
22. If the afferent arteriole of the nephron constricts, what happens to the GFR in
that nephron? If the efferent arteriole constricts what happens to the GFR in that
nephron? Assume that no auto regulation takes place.
If the afferent arteriole of the nephron constricts, what happens to the GFR in that
nephron? - Decrease in GFR.
If the efferent arteriole constricts what happens to the GFR in that nephron?
– Increase in GFR.
23. Identfiy the biological term
(Excretion, glomerulus, Urinary bladder, glomerular filtrate, ureters, urine,
Bowman’s capsule, urinary system, reabsorption, micturition, osmosis, proteins.)
a. A liquid which gathers in the bladder - urine
b. Produced when blood is filtered in a Bowman‟s capsule - glomerular filtrate
c. Temporary storage of urine – Urinary bladder
d. A ball of inter twined capillaries - glomerulus
e. Removal of unwanted substances from the body - excretion
f. Each contains a glomerulus - Bowman’s capsule
g. Carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder - ureters
h. Scientific term for urination - micturition
i. Regulation of water and dissolved substances in blood and tissue fluid -
Homeostasis
j. Consists of the kidneys, ureters and bladder - urinary system
k. Removal of useful substances from glomerular filtrate - reabsorption
l. What solute the blood contains that are not present in the glomerular filtrate? –
proteins

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 98 | 207

24. With regards to toxicity and the need for dilution in water, how different are
ureotelic and uricotelic excretions? Give examples of animals that use these types of
excretion?

Uricoteles Ureoteles
Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects In terrestrial animals, less toxic urea and
excrete uric acid crystals, with a minimum uric acid are produced to conserve water.
loss of water and are called uricoteles. Mammals and terrestrial amphibians
mainly excrete urea and are called
ureoteles.
25. Differentiate protonephridia from metanephridia:-
Protonephridia Metanephridia
Most invertebrates have a simple tubular Metanephridia means -Vertebrates have
structure in the form of primitive kidneys complex tubular organs called kidneys.
called protonephridia Ex : Annelids and molluscs, Malpighian
Ex : flame cells in Tapeworm, tubules in most insects
Solenocytes in Amphioxus.

26. What is the nitrogenous waste produced by amphibian larvae and by the adult
animal?
➪ The tadpole larvae of aquatic amphibians, that excrete most of its nitrogen in the
form of ammonia are called ammonoteles.
➪ But the terrestrial amphibians live in land and they mainly excrete urea are called
ureoteles.
27. How is urea formed in the human
body?
The nitrogenous waste formed as a
result of breakdown of amino acids
is converted to urea in the liver by
the Ornithine cycle or urea cycle.
Urine formation involves three
main processes namely, glomerular
filtration, tubular reabsorption and
tubular secretion.

28. Differentiate cortical from medullary nephrons :-

Cortical nephrons Medullary nephrons (JMN)
In majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle Some nephrons have very long loop of
is too short and extends only very little Henle that run deep into the medulla and
into the medulla and are called cortical are called juxta medullary nephrons
nephrons. (JMN).
29. What vessels carry blood to the kidneys? Is this blood arterial or venous?
1. The vessels carry blood to the kidneys is – Renal artery.
2. The blood carry to the kidneys is - Arterial blood.
[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 99 | 207
30. Which vessels drain filtered blood from the kidneys?
The vessels drain filtered blood from the kidneys is – Efferent arteriole.
31. What is tubular secretion?Name the substances secreted through the renal tubules ?
★ Substances such as H+, K+, NH4+, creatinine and organic acids move into the filtrate
from the peritubular capillaries into the tubular fluid.
★ Most of the water is absorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule and Na + is exchanged
for water in the loop of Henle.
★ Hypotonic fluid enters the distal convoluted tubule and substances such as urea and
salts pass from peritubular blood into the cells of DCT.
★ The urine excreted contains both filtered and secreted substances. Once it enters the
collecting duct, water is absorbed and concentrated hypertonic urine is formed.
★ For every H+ secreted into the tubular filtrate, a Na+ is absorbed by the tubular cell.
★ The H+ secreted combines with HCO3 +, HPO3- and NH3- and gets fixed as H2CO4+ ,
H2PO4+ and NH4 respectively. Since H+ gets fixed in the fluid, reabsorption of H+ is
prevented.
32. How are the kidneys involved in controlling blood volume? How is the volume of
blood in the body related to arterial pressure?

➪ Juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA) is a specialized tissue in the afferent arteriole

of the nephron that consists of macula densa and granular cells.
➪ The macula densa cells sense distal tubular flow and affect afferent arteriole
diameter, whereas the granular cells secrete an enzyme called renin.
➪ A fall in glomerular blood flow, glomerular blood pressure and glomerular filtration
rate, can activate JG cells to release renin which converts a plasma protein,
angiotensinogen to angiotensin I.
➪ Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACH) converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II.
➪ Angiotensin II stimulates Na+ reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule by
vasoconstriction of the blood vessels and increases the glomerular blood pressure.
[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 100 | 207
 ➪ Angiotensin II acts at different sites such as heart, kidney, brain, adrenal cortex and
blood vessels.
➪ It stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone that causes reabsorption of Na +, K+
excretion and absorption of water from the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.
➪ This increases the glomerular blood pressure and glomerular filtration rate.
➪ This complex mechanism is generally known as Renin- Angiotensin- Aldosterone
System (RAAS).
➪ Figure shows the schematic representation of the various hormones in the regulation of
body fluid concentration
33. Name the three main hormones are involved in the regulation of the renal function?
1) ADH – Antidiuretic hormone, 2. Renin- Angiotensin and 3. Aldosterone.
34. What is the function of antidiuretic hormone? Where is it produced and what
stimuli increases or decreases its secretion?
 When there is an increase in the blood pressure, the osmoreceptors of the
hypothalamus respond by stimulating the neurohypophysis to secrete the antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) or vasopressin (a positive feedback).
 ADH facilitates reabsorption of water by increasing the number of aquaporins on the
cell surface membrane of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.
 This increase in aquaporins causes the movement of water from the lumen into the
interstitial cells, thereby preventing excess loss of water by diuresis.
 When you drink excess amounts of your favourite juice, osmoreceptors of the
hypothalamus is no longer stimulated and the release of ADH is suppressed from the
neurohypophysis (negative feedback) and the aquaporins of the collecting ducts move
into the cytoplasm.
 Vasopressin secretion is controlled by positive and negative feedback mechanism.
35. What is the effect of aldosterone on kidneys and where is it produced?
❖ Angiotensin II acts at different sites such as heart, kidney, brain, adrenal cortex and
blood vessels.
❖ It stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete Aldosterone that causes reabsorption of
Na+, K+ excretion and absorption of water from the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct.
❖ This increases the glomerular blood pressure and glomerular filtration rate.
This complex mechanism is generally known as Renin- Angiotensin- Aldosterone
System (RAAS).
36. Explain the heart’s role in secreting a hormone that regulates renal function? What
hormone is this?
 Excessive stretch of cardiac atrial cells cause an increase in blood flow to the atria of the
heart and release Atrial Natriuretic Peptide or factor (ANF) travels to the kidney
where it increases Na+ excretion and increases the blood flow to the glomerulus, acting
on the afferent glomerular arterioles as a vasodilator or on efferent arterioles as a
vasoconstrictor.
 It decreases aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex and also decreases release of
renin, thereby decreasing angiotensin II.
 ANF acts antagonistically to the reninangiotensin system, aldosterone and vasopressin.

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 101 | 207

 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
2 & 3 Mark Questions
1. What is osmotic regulation?
Osmotic regulation is the control of tissue osmotic pressure which acts as a driving force for
the movement of water across biological membranes.
2. What are stenohaline animals?
They can tolerate only narrow fluctuations in the salt concentration. Ex: Goldfish
3. What are Euryhaline animals?
 They are able to tolerate wide fluctuations in the salt concentrations. Ex: Artemia
Salmons, Tilapia
 Acids amines and ammonia compounds may also transported into the tubule.
4. Define excretion?
The process by which the body gets rid of the nitrogenous waste products of protein
metabolism is called excretion.
5. What is meant by Ionic regulation?
It is the control of ionic composition of body fluids.
6. What are the nitrogenous waste formed due to the degeneration of amino acid?
Ammonia, Urea & Uric acid
7. Name some nitrogenous waste product produced by various animals?
Some of the nitrogenous wastes produced by various animals other than ammonia, urea
and uric acid are:
Trimethyl amine oxide (TMO) in marine teleosts, guanine in spiders, hippuric acid in
mammals, reptiles and other nitrogenous wastes include allantonin, allantoic acid,
omithuric acid, creatinine, creatine, purines, pyramidines and pterines.
8. What is meant by renal hilum?
The centre of the inner concave surface of the kidney has a notch called the renal hilum
through which ureter blood vessels and nerves innervate.
9. What is meant by malpighian capsule or renal corpuscle?
The Bowman’s capsule and the glomerulus together constitute the renal corpuscle.
10. What is the difference between nephron present in reptiles and mammals?
Reptiles have reduced glomerulus or lack glomerulus and Henle’s loop. Mammals have a
long Henle’s loop. Reptiles produce hypotonic urine whereas mammals produce hypertonic
urine.
11. What is vasa recta?
The efferent arteriole serving the juxtamedullary nephron forms bundles of long straight
vessel called vasa recta and runs parallel to the loop of Henle.
12. List the three important process of urine formation?
1. Glomerulus filtration, 2. Tubular reabsorption, 3. Tubular secretion
13. What is meant by Glomerulus filtrate? What is its composition?
The blood comes to the glomerulus are filtered and enters the Bowman’s capsule is called
glomerular filtrate
Composition: Water, glucose, amino acids and nitrogenous wastes.

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 102 | 207

14. What is meant by Net filtration pressure?
The two opposing forces against the glomerular blood pressure
Collodial osmotic pressure is 30 mm Hg
Capsular hydrostatic pressure is 15mm Hg

Net Glomerular Colloidal Capsular

filtration = Hydrostatic -- Osmotic + hydrostatic
pressure pressure pressure pressure

= 55 mm Hg – (30 mm Hg + 15 mm Hg) = 10 mm Hg
15. What is meant by Glomerular filtration rate? What is the amount of GFR?
It is the volume of filtrate formed in a minute in all nephrons of both the kidneys.
In adults the GFR is 120 -125 ml per minute.
16. What is meant by primary filtrate?
The filtrate enters from glomerulus to the Bowman’s capsule is called as primary filtrate.
17. Why glomercular filtrate resembles blood plasma?
In the glomerular filtrate all the contents that present in the blood except the plasma
protein is present.
18. How much filtrate is formed in one day?
The amount of filtrate formed in a day is 170 to 180L.
19. What is meant by selective permeability?
 Some substances present in the glomerular filtrate is essential for our body.
 Hence these molecules are reabsorbed in a tubules. This process is called as selective
reabsorption.
20. Name the process in which selective reabsorption is taking place?
1. Passive transport, 2. Active transport, 3. Diffusion, 4. Osmosis
21. What is Micturition?
The process of release of urine from the bladder is called micturition or urination.
22. What is meant by Hypotonic solution?
The solution in which there is a loss of water then that solution is a hypotonic solution.
23. What is meant by Isotonic solution?
Isotonic condition of a solution indicates no passage of water across the membrane
separating two such solution.
24. What is meant by hypertonic solution?
When two solutions A and B are separated by a semi permeable membrane when water
move from solution A to B across the membrane then the B solution is hypertonic and the
solution A where the water loses is known as hypotonic solution.
25. What are the symptoms of diabetes mellitus?
➪ Excess glucose and ketone bodies in the urine
➪ Poly dipsia – Excessive drinking of water
➪ Polyurea – Excretion of large quantities of urea
➪ Polyphagia – Excessive appetite

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 103 | 207

26. Name the organ that the angiotensin II acton?
1. Heart, 2. Kidney, 3. Brain, 4. Adrenal cortex
27. What is meant by pyleothotomy or lithotripsy?
Renal stones can be removed by the technique pyleothotomy or lithotripsy.
28. Name the organ that excrete nitrogen other than kidney?
1. Lungs, 2. Liver, 3. Skin
29. What are the significance of sweat glands?
 Sweat produced by the sweat glands helps to cool the body.
 It excretes Na+ and Cl– small quantities of urea and lactate.
30. Why men are finding difficult to urinate in their old age?
With age prostate in males may enlarge which forces urethra to tighten restricting a
normal urinary flow.
31. What is the change in Urine formation when there is a deficiency of ADH?
When there is a deficiency of ADH the reabsorption of water from the proximal
convoluted tubule decreases leads to dilute urine formation.
32. Why there is an increase in the body fluid when we drink large volume of water with
out eating anything salty?
 When we drink or eat salty products the Na+ enters into the body fluids.
 The sodium ions helps in the reabsorption of water
 But when we drink only water as there is no sodium ions the tubules cannot reabsorb
water.
 Hence there is an increase in the urine output.
33. Name the different process that maintains water level? When there is a severe loss
of water in the body?
 The blood vessels supplies to skin constricts and thus there is a decrease in the
secretion of sweat prevents loss of water.
 There is a reduction in the glomerular blood pressure and the rate of filtration
decreases.
 The reaborption of water in the proximal, distal convoluted tubules increase.
 There is absorption of water from the small intestine and large intestine and thus
increases the water content in the blood.
34. What is meant by Osmolarity?
The solute concentration of a solution of water is known as osmolarity,
The unit is milliosmoles / litre (mOsm /l)
35. What is meant by aquaporins? What are its functions?
Aquaporins are membrane proteins that allow water to move across the epithelial cells.
Functions: It helps in allowing water to move across the epithelial cells in relation to the
osmotic difference from the lumen to the interstitial fluid.
36. How can we measure that there is an efficient glomerular filtration?
If the renal clearance is equal to the glomerular filtration rate with little reabsoption and
secretion. Then we know the kidney is functioning efficiently.

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 104 | 207

37. What is the Significance of having long and short Henle’s loop of Nephrons?
➪ The main function of Henle’s loop is to reabsorb water from filtrate.
➪ If the length of the loop is longer then there is more reabsorption of water and if the
lengh of Henle’s loop is shorter then the reabsorption of water is less.
38. Give notes on capillary to capsule.
Bloodcells and most blood proteins are too big to cross the capsular membrane into the
capsule space. But the membrane’s slits and pores allow through water, mineral salts,
polypeptides and other small molecules including waste such as urea, ammonia and
creatinine.
39. Give short notes on Blood enters the glomerulus.
Blood flows from renal arteriole into the knot of capillaries. It enters at pressure which
will force water and other things out of the capillaries into the capsular space.
40. Give notes on filteration in proximal convoluted tubule?
Proximal tubule is nearer to the Bowman’s capsule. This region allows much water to be
reabsorbed into the capillaries and surronding fluids as well as glucose, mineral salts and
other useful substances.
41. Give notes on filteration in peritubular capillaries.
It is also called the vasarecta this network reabsorbs upto 99 percent of the water in the
tubule as well as various other substance using active pumps it also moves sodium from
the blood to the tubule.
42. We are not consuming urea. But in our body urea is produced. Why?
Through Arnithine cycle in the lives the nitrogenous waste formed due to the breakdown
of amino acid creates urea.
43. Give notes on filteration in Henle’s loop (Ascending)
 As the loop of the Henle dips into the renal medula more water moves from the tubule
into the blood as well as small amounts of salts and some urea and creatinine.
 Some acids and amines may move into the tubule in which ammonia can go in both the
direction.
44. Give notes on filteration in distal tubule?
Distal tubule is far from capsule. This region may see water go in or out of the tubule
depending on the concentration of water already in the tubule/ while hydrogen and
potassium ions move to regulate both blood and urine pH.
Acids amines and ammonia compounds may also transported into the tubule.
45. Give notes on filteration in collecing duct.
Fine adjustment of urine composition continues into the collecting duct system. About 5
percent of all the water and sodium being reabsorbed into the blood is recovered here.
46. Give notes on venous flow?
 Blood flowing away from the nephrons carries 99 % of its orginal water.
 98% of its sodium calcium and cholrides and about 40% of its urea.
47. What is meant by Ionic regulation?
It is the control of the ionic composition of body fluids.

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 105 | 207

48. What are the other nitrogenous wastes of protein metabolism?
Alantonin, Alantoic acid, Ornithuriacid, creatinine, creatine, purines, pyramidines and
pterines.
49. How is Reptiles produced less hypotonic urine?
Reptiles have reduced glomerulus or lack glomerulus and Henles loop and hence produce
very little hypotonic urine.
50. How is mammals produced concentrated urine?
Mammalian kidneys produce concentrated urine due to the presence of Henle’s loop.
51. What are the three coverings of kidney?
1. Renal facia, 2. Perirenal fat capsule, 3. Fibrous capsule
52. What are medullary pyramids?
The medulla is divided into a few conical tissue masses called medullary pyramids.
53. What is meant by renal columns of Bertini?
The part of cortex that extends in between the medullary pyramids is the renal columns of
Bertini.
54. What is meant by renal pelvis?
A broad funnel shaped space inner to the hilum is called renal pelvis.
55. What is calyces?
The projection in the pelvis is called calyces.
56. What is meant by juxtaglomerular apparatus?
 Specialized tissue in the afferent arteriole of nephron is the juxta glomerular apparatus.
 It consists of macula densa and granular cells.
 The macula densa cells sense distal tubular flow and affect afferent alteriole diameter.
 The granular cells secrete renin.
57. How is lung acting as a excretory organ?
Lungs remove large quantities of carbondixide 18 litres / day and significant quantities of
water every day.

58. Give notes on ammonoteles, uricoteles and ureoteles.

[Link] Ammonoteles: Uricoteles: Ureoteles:

Animals that excrete most Animals which excrete Animals which excrete
of its nitrogen in the form uricacid crystals with a urea as a nitrogenous
1
of ammonia are called minimum loss of water wastes are called
ammonoteles. is called Uricoteles ureoteles
(e.g) fishes Amphibians (e.g) Reptiles Birds land (e.g) Mammals,
aquatic insects. snails and insects. terrestrial amphibians.
2 In bony fishes ammonia
diffuses out across the
body surface.

59. What is meant by renal clearnace?

The amount of solute passing from the urine in a given period of time is renal clearance.

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 106 | 207

60. How can we estimate the efficiency of kidney?
 The renal clearance is equal to the glomerular filtrate then there is efficient filtration
with little reabsorption and secretion.
 Thus we can estimate the clearance is equal.
61. The concentration of urine depends on the structure of nephron? Explain? Or
Nephrons are the functional and structural unit of kidney’s. What is the relationship
between glomerulus, Henle’s loop and urine formation.
1. In the reptiles the glomerulus is reduced or there may be no glomerulus and Henle’s
loop and hence produces dilute urine (hypotonic).
2. In the mammals the long Henle’s loop produces concentrated urine (hypertonic).
3. A glomerular kidneys of marine fishes produce little urine that is iso osmotic to the
body fluid.
4. Amphibians and freshwater fish lack Henle’s loop hence produce dilute urine.
62. Give Short notes on capillary bed of the nephron:
The capillary bed of the nephron are the glomerulus and peritubular capillaries.
1. Glomerulus:
Blood enters into the glomerulus through afferent arteriole and drained by the efferent
arteriole.
2. Peritubular capillaries:
The efferent arteriole forms a fine cappillary network around the renal tubule called the
peritubular capillaries.
The efferent arteriole serving the juxta medullary nephrons forms bundles of long straight
vessel called vasa recta.
Vasa recta is absent in cortical nephrons.
63. What happens to the filtrate that comes to the proximal convoluted tubule? (or)
Explain about reabsorption?
● In the proximal convoluted tubule glucose, lacticacid, aminoacid and sodium ions are
reabsorbed.
● Sodium is reabsorbed – potassium pump in the proximal convoluted tubule.
● Small amounts of urea and uric acid are also reabsorbed.
64. What happen to the filtrate that comes to the Henle’s loop? (or) Explain the
reabsorption in the Henle’s loop?
Descending Loop: The aquaporin present in the descending limb of Henle permeable to
water but not permeable to salts.
Hence Na+ and cl– gets concentrated in the filtrate.
Ascending Limb: It is impermeable to water but permeable to solutes like Na+cl– and K+.
65. Give an account of tubular reabsorption?
The volume of filterate formed perday is 170-180 is and the urine released in a day is 1.5l
Nearly 99 % of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed by the renal tubules. It is called
selective reabsorption.
Reabsorption is taken place by the tubular epithelial cells in different segments of the
nephron by active transport or passive transport diffusion and osmosis.

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 107 | 207

66. What is happenning to the filtrate in distal convoluted tubule (or) Reabsorption
taking place here?
➪ Depending on the body’s need the reabsorption taking place here and is regulated by
hormones.
➪ Reabsorption of bicarbonate HCO3– takes place to regulate the blood pH.
➪ Homestasis of K+ and Na+ in the blood is also regulated in this region.
67. Name the structures that regulate the functioning of kidney?
1. Hypothalamus, 2. Juxta glomerular apparatus, 3. Heart
68. What is meant by diabetes incipidus?
The deficiency or absence of ADH that leads to dilute urine called diabetes incipidus.
Symptoms: Excessive thirst, Excretion of large quantities of dilute urine. FaIl in blood
pressure.
69. What is meant by urethritis?
The infection in the urethra is called urethritis.
70. Why female are prone to urinary tract infections (Urethritis) than men?
➪ Female’s urethra is very short and its external opening is close to the anal opening.
➪ Hence improper toilet habits can easily carry faecal bacteria into the urethra.
➪ The urethral mucusa is continuous with the urianary tract and the inflammation of the
urethra is called urethritis’
71. What is cystitis?
The urinary tract infection leads to inflammation of bladder called cystitis.
Symptoms: Painful urination, 2. Urinary Urgency, 3. Cloudy or blood tinged urine
4. Back pain head ache offen occurs
72. What is meant by renal failure? What are its types?
When the kidney fails to excrete wastes may lead to accumulation of urea with marked
reduction in the out put called renal failure.
Types: 1. Acute renal failure, 2. Chronic renal failure
1. Acute renal failure: In acute renal failure the kidney stops its function abruptly.
There are chances for recovery of kidney function.
2. Chronic renal failure: In chronic renal failure there is a progressive loss of function of
the nephron which gradually decreases the function of kidneys.
73. Why the chronic renal failure is dangerous than acute renal failure?
 Though the kidney stops its function abruptly there are chances for recovery of kidney
function in acute renal failure.
 But in chronic failure there is a progressive loss of function of the nephron which
gradually decreases the function of kidney.
74. What is meant by glomerulo nephritis or Bright’s disease? What are its symptoms?
Inflammation of the glomerulus of both the kidneys due to the strepto coccal infection in
children is called as Bright’s disease.
Symptoms: 1. Haematuria, 2. Proteinuria, 3. Salt and water retention – Oligouria (Low
urine out put), 4. Hypertension and 5. Pulmonary oedema

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 108 | 207

75. a) Name the hormone that the dipsticks contain which tests urine?
b) Which colour indicates the presence of glucose in the urine?
● Glucose oxidase and peroxidase.
● Brown coloured compound is produced.
76. What is meant by filtration slits?
● The visceral layer of glomerulus is made of epithelial cells called podocytes and ends in
foot processes which cling to the basement membrane of the glomerulus.
● The openings between the foot processes are called filtration slits.
77. Draw the diagram of ornithine cycle?
(Refer Qn. No. 27 in Book Back Questions)
78. Why there is a pressure reduction when the blood goes through efferent arteriole?
● Blood enters the glomerulus faster with greater force through afferent arteriole.
● Because the afferent arteriole is broader than efferent arteriole that is why the pressure
reduces when it goes through the efferent arteriole.
79. Differentiate between Osmo regulators and Osmo confirmers?

[Link] Osmo regulators Osmo confirmers

1 They maintain their internal Osmo confirmers are able to change
osmotic concentration irrespective their internal osmotic concentration
of their external osmotic with change in external environments as
environment, (eg) Otters. in marine and sharks & molluscs

80. What are the changes taking place in our body when there is a fluid loss?
 The osmo receptors in the hypothalamus is stimulated.
 The neurohypophysis is stimulated and antidiuretic hormone is liberated.
 The aquaporins in the tubuler are increased and water is reabsorbed and enters into
the interstitial cell and the water loss is rectified.
81. How is skin acted as an excretory organ?
● Skin excretes Na+ and Cl– small quantities of urea and lactate.
● Sebaceous glands eliminated certain substances like steroids, hydrocarbons and waxes.
82. What is meant by Uremia?
 Uremia is characterized by increase in urea and other non-protein nitrogenous
substances like uric acid and creatinine in blood .
 Normal urea level in human blood is about 17-30mg/100ml of blood.
 The urea concentration rises as 10 times of normal levels during chronic renal failure.
83. What is meant by Phelitis or Pyelonephritis?
The bladder infection ascend to the renal inflammation called pyelitis or pyelonephritis.
84. The concentration of urine depends on the structure of nephron? Explain?
1) In the reptiles the glomerulus is reduced or there may be no glomerulus and Henle’s
loop and hence produces dilute urine (hypotonic).
2) In the mammals the long Henle’s loop produces concentrated urine (hypertonic).
3) A glomerular kidneys of marine fishes produce little urine that is iso osmotic to the
body fluid.
4) Amphibians and freshwater fish lack Henle’s loop hence produce dilute urine.
[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 109 | 207
85. How is water excess taken through drinking too much fruit juice regulated?
● When we drink much fruit juice the osmo receptors in hypothalamus is not stimulated
and hence the secretion of vasopressin from neurohypophysis is reduced.
● The aquaporin escapes from collecting duct to cytoplasm and hence water reabsorption
is prevented and formed dilute urine.
86. What is the amount of Urea present in the blood?
● The level of urea in the blood is 17 -30 mg /100ml.
● In chronic kidney failure there is 10 times increase in urea level.
87. What is meant by nephrolithiasis or Renal calculi?
● Renal calculi, also called renal stone or kidney stone or nephrolithiasis, is the
formation of hard stone like masses in the renal tubules of renal pelvis.
● It is mainly due to the accumulation of soluble crystals of salts of sodium oxalates and
certain phosphates.
● This result in severe pain called “renal colic pain” and can cause scars in the kidneys.
● Renal stones can be removed by techniques like pyleothotomy or lithotripsy.
88. What is meant by haemodialysis?
The process of removing toxic urea from the blood of renal failure patients is known as
haemodialysis.

5 MARK QUESTIONS
1. Name the different excretory structures in different organisms.
1. Invertebrate – Protonephridia / Meta nephridia,
2. Platyhelminthes – Flame cells,
3. Amphioxus – Solenocytes,
4. Nematodes – Rennette cells,
5. Annelida – Metanephridia,
6. Insects – Malpighian tubules,
7. Prawn / Crustaceans – Green glands / Antenna Glands.
2. a. What is the weight of kidneys? What are its outer coverings?
b. Draw the L.S of kidney and name the
parts.
c. Explain the internal structure of kidney
a. Each kidney weighs an average of 120 – 170 gms.
The outer layer of the kidney is covered by three layers of supportive tissue namely renal
fascia, perirenal fat capsule, fibrous capsule.
b. Draw the LS of kidney and name the
parts.
c. Internal Structure of kidney
➪ Excretory system in human consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary
bladder and urethra.
➪ Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped structures, that lie in the superior lumbar
region.

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 110 | 207

 ➪ The right kidney is placed slightly lower
than the left kidney. Each kidney weighs
is 120-170 grams.
➪ The outer layer of the kidney is covered
by cortex, inner medulla and pelvis.
➪ The centre of the inner concave surface
of the kidney has a notch called the renal
hilum, through which ureter, blood
vessels and nerves innervate.
➪ Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel
shaped space called the renal pelvis
with projection called calyces.
➪ The calyces collect the urine and empties
in to the ureter which is stored in the
urinary bladder temporarily.
➪ The urinary bladder opens into the urethra through which urine is expelled out.

3. a) What is the structural and functional unit of kidney.

b) Draw the diagram of nephron and name the parts.
c) Give short notes on Malpighian body or Renal Corpuscle.
a) The structural and functional unit of kidney is nephron. It is composed of Malpighian
body or renal corpuscle and Uriniferous tubule.
b) Structure of nephron (Refer the next question)
c) Malpighian body/Renal Corpuscle.
● The Bowman’s capsule and the glomerulus together constitutes Malpighian corpuscle.
● Bowman’s capsule is made up of two layers. It contains blood vessels called glomerules.
● The endothelial of glomerulus has many pores. The viscral layers of glomerulus is made
of epithelial cells called podocytes.
● Thee podocytes end in foot processes which cling to the basement membrance of the
glomerulus.
● The openings between the foot processes are called filtration slits.
4. Structure of a nephron :-
 Nephron is the structural and functional
unit of kidneys. Each kidney has nearly one
million nephron.
 Each nephron consists of a filtering
corpuscle called renal corpuscle
(malpighian body) and a renal tubule.
 The renal tubule opens into a longer tubule
called the collecting duct.
 The renal tubule begins with a double
walled cup shaped structure called the
Bowman’s capsule, which encloses a ball
of capillaries that delivers fluid to the
tubules, called the glomerulus.
 The Bowman‟s capsule and the glomerulus
together constitute the renal corpuscle.
 The endothelium of glomerulus has many pores (fenestrae).
[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 111 | 207
  The external layer of the Bowman's capsule is made up of simple squamous epithelium
and the visceral layer is made of epithelial cells called podocytes.
 The podocytes end in foot processes are called filtration slits.
 The renal tubule continues further to form the proximal convoluted tubule
[PCT] followed by a U-shaped loop of Henle (Henle‟s loop) that has a thin
descending and a thick ascending limb.
 The ascending limb continues as a highly coiled tubular region called the distal
convoluted tubule [DCT].
 The DCT of many nephrons open into a straight tube called collecting duct.
 The collecting duct runs through the medullary pyramids in the region of the pelvis.
 Several collecting ducts fuse to form papillary duct that delivers urine into the calyces,
which opens into the renal pelvis.
5. Mechanism of urine formation in human :-
The Urine formation involves 3 main processes namely Glomerular filtration, Tubular
reabsorption and Tubular secretion.
1) Glomerular ultra filtration:-
❖ A malpighian body comprises bowman’s capsule and glomeruli.
❖ Malpighian body acts as a biological [Link] kidneys receive an abundant blood
120-125 ml/min.
❖ Net filtration pressure = 55 mmHg - (30 mmHg + 15 mmHg) = 10mmHg .
The effective glomerular pressure of 10 mmHg results in ultrafiltration.
❖ The fluid in the capsule which obtained by the filtering process is glomerular filtrate.
In 24hours the total volume of glomerular filtrate is 180 liters.
2) Tubular Reabsorption:-
❖ The volume of filtrate formed per day is around 170-180 L .
❖ The urine released is around 1.5 L per day, i.e., nearly 99% of the glomerular filtrate
that has to be reabsorbed by the renal tubules as it contains certain substances
needed by the body. This process is called selective reabsorption.
❖ Reabsorption takes place by the tubular epithelial cells in different segments of the
nephron either by active transport or passive transport, diffusion and osmosis.
3) Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) :-
❖ Glucose, lactate, amino acids, Na+ and water in the filtrate is reabsorbed in the PCT.
❖ Sodium is reabsorbed by active transport through sodium- potassium (Na+ K-) pump
in the PCT.
❖ Small amounts of urea and uric acid are also reabsorbed.
4) Henle’s loop:-
❖ Descending limb of Henle‟s loop is permeable to water due the presence of
aquaporins, but not permeable to salts. Water is lost in the descending limb, hence
Na+ and Cl- gets concentrated in the filtrate.
❖ Ascending limb of Henle’s loop is impermeable to water but permeable to solutes
such as Na+, Cl-, K+.
5) Distal convoluted tubules (DCT) :-
❖ Recovers water and secretes potassium into the tubule. Na+, Cl- and water remains in
the filtrate of the DCT.
❖ Most of the reabsorption from this point is dependent on the body’s need and is
regulated by hormones.
[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 112 | 207
 ❖ In this tubules, the urine becomes isotonic, due to active transport of Na+ and passive
transport of water.
6) Collection tubule-
❖ Collecting duct is permeable to water, secretes K+ and reabsorbs Na+ to produce
concentrated urine.
❖ The change in permeability to water is due to the presence of number of water
permeable channels called aquaporins.

6. a) Why glomerular filtrate resembles blood plasma?

b) Tabulate the concentration of substances in the blood plasma and in the
glomerular filtrate.
As the glomerular filtrate forms it contain all the substances except plasma protein of
blood. Hence it resembles blood.
[Link] Substance Concentration in blood Concentration in glomerular
Plasma / g dm-3 filtrate / g dm-3
1 Water 900 900
2 Proteins 80.0 0.05
3 Aminoacids 0.5 0.5
4 Glucose 1.0 1.0
5 Urea 0.3 0.3
6 Uric Acid 0.04 0.04
7 Creatinine 0.01 0.01
8 Inorganic ions (mainly 7.2 7.2
(Na+, K+ and Cl– )

7. Give an account of tubular secretion of nephron.

● The collecting tubule of nephron secrete H+ NH4 , Creatinine and Organic acid and
liberated into the tubules and excreted through urine.
● Most of the water is absorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule.
● Na– is exchanged for water in the loop of Henle.
● The hypotonic fluid enters the distal convoluted tubule. Substances such as urea and
salts pass from peritubular blood into the cells as distal convoluted tubule and then to
collecting duct.
● Water is absorbed and concentrated hypertonic urine is formed.
● For every H+ secreted into the tubular filtrate a Na+ is absorbed by the tubular cell.
● The H+ secreted combines with HCO3, HPO3 and NH3 and gets fixed as carbonic acid
CH2CO3 and Phosphoric acid CH2PO4.
● Since H+ gets fixed in the fluid reabsorption of H+ is prevented.

8. How is vasa recta helps in producing concentrated urine?

Vasa recta maintains the medullary osmotic gradient via counter current exchanger.
 Vasa recta preserves the medullary gradient while removing reabsorbed water and
solutes through counter current exchanges.
 The vasa recta leave the kidney at the junction between the cortex and medulla.
 The interstitial fluid at this point is iso – osmotic to blood.
 When the blood leaves the efferent arteriole and enters the vasa recta the osmalarity in
the medulla increases (1200 mOsm) and results in passive uptake of solutes and loss of
water.
[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 113 | 207
  As the blood enters the cortex the osmolarity in the blood decreases (300mOsm) and
the blood loses solutes and gains water to form concentrated urine.
 Human kidneys can produce urine nearly four times concentrated than the initial
filtrate formed.

9. a) What are the structures that regulate kidney functioning?

b) What is the role of ADH in Urine formation.
a) The structures that regulate kidney functioning
1. Hypothalamus, 2. Juxtaglomerular apparatus, 3. Heart
b) The functions of ADH
● When there is excessive loss of fluid from the body or when there is an increase in
the blood pressure the osmoreceptors of the hypothalamus is stimulated.
● The osmoreceptors stimulate the neurohypophysis to secrete an antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) or vasopressin.
● ADH facilitates reabsorption of water by increasing the number of aquaporins on
the cell surface of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct and prevents
excess loss of water.

10. a) Name the cell that secretes the enzyme renin. b) Where is granular cell present?
c) What is the role of renin in Osmoregulation.
a) Renin is secreted by granular cells
.b) Granular cells are present in the afferent arteriole.
c) The role of renin
➪ A fall in glomerular blood flow blood pressure and filtration rate can activate granular
cells of juxtaglomerular cells to release renin.
➪ Renin converts the plasma protein angiotensinogen into angiotensin I and
angiotensin II.
➪ Angiotensin II stimulates Na+ reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule by
vasoconstriction of the blood vessels and increases the glomerular blood pressure.
➪ Angiotensin II stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone that causes
reabsorption of Na+, K+ excretion and absorption of water.
➪ This increases the glomerular blood pressure and glomerular filtration rate.
➪ Hence renin regulates osmoregulation.
11. a) Where is atrial natriuretic peptide liberated from?
b) Write its significance in short.
a) This is liberated from the atrium of heart.
b) Uses of Atrial Natriuretic peptide
 It increases Na+ excretion and increases the blood flow to the glomerulus.
 It acts on the afferent glomerular arteriole as a vaso dilator or an efferent arteriole as
a vaso constrictor.
 It reduces aldosterone from adrenal cortex and renin secretion.
 Thus decreases the angiotensin II.
 The atrial natriuretic factor acts antagonistically to renin angiotensin system,
aldosterone and vasopressin.
[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 114 | 207
12. a) What is micturition?
b) How is central nervous system regulates urination?
a) The process of release of Urine from the bladder is called micturition or urination.
b) Urine formed by the nephrons is ultimately carried to the urinary bladder where it is
stored till it receives a signal from the central nervous system.
● The stretch receptors present inthe urinary bladder are stimulated when it gets filled
with urine.
● At the same time the internal sphincters opens and relaxing the external sphincter.
● The sphincter opens and the urine is expelled out.
13. Answer for the following questions.
a) What is the average excretion of an adult human? 1.5 Litres
b) What is the pH of Urine? pH = 6
c) How much pH is differed due to the food we eat? pH = 4.5 - 8
d) What is the reason for the yellow colour of urine? Urochrome
e) How much urea is excreted in a day? 25 – 30 g
f) If there is more glucose, and ketone what does it indicates? Diabetes mellitus
14. Draw the schematic representations of renin hormone in the regulation of body
fluid concentration. (For diagram see the Bookback Qn. No. 32)
15. Answer for the following question in excretion by other organs.
a) What are the other structures that excrete nitrogenous wastes rather than kidney?
Lungs, Liver and skin
b) How much CO2 is excreted through lungs? 18 Litres
c) What are the wastes excreted by digestive systems? ’
Water, Bilirubin, Biliverdin, Cholesterol, Vitamins and drugs.
d) What are the glands that excrete waste through skin?
Sweat glands and sebaceous glands
e) What is the main function of sweat glands? To cool the body
f) What is the second important function of sweat gland?
Na+ and Cl–, small quantities of Urea and Lactate excretion.
g) Name the substance excreted by sebaceous glands. Sebum
h) Name the substances excreted by sebaceous glands. Steroid Hydrocarbon and wax.
i) Name the waste excreted through saliva. Nitrogenous wastes
16. What is meant by Haemodialysis?
◎ Malfunctiong of the kidneys can lead to accumalation of urea and other toxic
substances, leading to kidney failure.
◎ In such patients toxic urea can be removed from the blood by a process called
haemodialysis.
◎ A dialyzing machine or an artificial kidney is connected to the patient‟s body.
◎ A dialyzing machine consists of a long cellulose tube surrounded by the dialysing fluid
in a water bath.
◎ The patient’s blood is drawn from a conveinent artery and pumped into the
dialysing unit after adding an anticoagulant like heparin.
[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 115 | 207
 ◎ The tiny pores in the dialysis tube allows small molecules such as glucose, salts and
urea to enter into the water bath, whereas blood cells and protein molecules do not
enter these pores.
◎ This stage is similar to the filtration process in the glomerulus.
◎ The dialysing liquid in the water bath consists of solution of salt and sugar in correct
proportion in order to prevent loss of glucose and essential salts from the blood.
The cleared blood is then pumped back to the body through a vein.

17. Kidney Transplantation :-

✪ It is the ultimate method for correction of the acute renal failures.

✪ This involves transfer of healthy kidney from one person (donor) to another person with
kidney failure.
✪ The donated kidney may be taken from a healthy person who is declared brain dead or
from sibling or close relatives to minimise the chances of rejection by the immune
system of the host.
✪ Immunosuppressive drugs are usually administered to the patient to avoid tissue
rejection.

⫹⫺⫹⫺⫹⫺⫹⫺⫹⫺

[Link], [Link] (ZOOLOGY), GGHSS – PENNAGARAM, DHARMAPURI – DT. P a g e 116 | 207