Chapter 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
This chapter provides an overview of related studies and literature on Rice Husk Ash (RHA), compiled
through a thorough search by the researchers. It encompasses studies on Pozzolans/Pozzolana, RHA as a
Pozzolanic material, RHA preparation methods, and RHA-infused construction materials. The chapter
presents findings from these studies to enhance the understanding of RHA's effects as an admixture in
various construction materials within civil engineering. The majority of scholarly research and literary
works reviewed are international, with a limited number of local sources.
Review of Related Studies
Pozzolan, or Pozzolana, is defined as pyroclastic rocks, typically glassy and zeolitized, found near
Pozzuoli or Rome. It is also defined as either natural or artificial inorganic materials that harden in water
when mixed with calcium hydroxide (lime) or materials releasing calcium hydroxide, like ordinary
Portland cement. Rocks formed from magma after volcanic eruptions are classified as natural pozzolans.
Sedimentary rocks, such as diatomaceous earths and certain clays capable of combining with lime, are
also considered natural pozzolans. Fly ash, burned shales, silica fume, burned clays, thermally active
materials, and rice husk ash are classified as artificial pozzolans. Ash obtained by burning rice husk
within a specific temperature range exhibits a pozzolanic character, containing over 80% silica
(McCarthy & Dyer, 2019).
The study “Application of Rice Husk Ash as Green and Sustainable Biomass” by (Moayedi, Aghel,
Abdullahin, Nguyen, & Rashid, 2019) surveyed experimental studies of biomass waste ash as a
pozzolanic additive for engineering purposes. The authors reviewed physical and chemical pretreatment
methods for agricultural waste ash and provided information about the composition and preparation of
agricultural waste ash. The study specifically reviewed agro waste-RHA and its application in
construction engineering and renewable energy. The study concluded that the characteristics of
agricultural waste ash, whether used as an absorbent, catalyst, or pozzolanic material, vary according to
the burning method used. It also concluded that RHA for silicon material production is a sustainable
option.
The paper entitled “Green Concrete Partially Comprised of Rice Husk Ash as a Supplementary
Cementitious Material – A Comprehensive Review” by (Thomas, 2018) discussed nine different points
about the properties of concrete based on various published studies. The review concluded that to
produce the most reactive silica RHA, rice husk should be combusted in the temperature range of
500℃-700℃ and can achieve high specific surface by treating the RHA with 1N hydrochloric acid. The
review also noted that 5-10% addition of RHA as SCM reduces bleeding and segregation of mortars and
cement concrete, but additions beyond 10% reduce workability unless a superplasticizer is added. Up to
20% of RHA increases compressive strength, and the use of RHA with Nano silica can contribute to high
early strength and long-term durability. With RHA substitution increasing from 5% to 15%, abrasion
resistance, flexural, and splitting tensile strength gradually increase, but there is a tendency of brittle
failure. Concrete containing up to 30% of RHA reduces porosity and water absorption. Concrete mixes
containing 10% and 15% RHA substitution were in the “very good” air permeability quality level, and the
modulus of elasticity of concrete containing unground and ground RHA was higher than regular concrete
mix. Increasing RHA in concrete by 15%-20% reduces corrosion potential, carbonation, chloride
penetration, acid, and sulfate attack. Increasing RHA from 20% to 40% reduces drying shrinkage and
autogenous shrinkage. Concrete containing up to 30% RHA has higher electrical resistivity. Finally, the
review noted that due to the high pozzolanic reaction and filler effect of RHA, pore refinement takes
place, reducing the pore volume of RHA concrete at 28 and 91 days. SEM analysis shows a more uniform
structure and reduction in ettringite.
According to Optimized Preparation of Rice Husk Ask (RHA) as Supplementary Cementitious Material, a
study by (Isberto, Labra, Landicho, & De Jesus, 2019), the potential of RHA as supplementary
cementitious material (SCM) has been well-regarded since it contains high content of silica. The study
investigated the critical factors needed to produce high silica content RHA and the effect of RHA in the
strength of cement mortar with various proportions of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% RHA by weight
replacement of cement. The authors concluded that high-quality RHA is produced by burning rice husk
at a semi-controlled temperature of 400℃ to 600℃ and by slowly cooling the resulting RHA for 6 to 8
hours, resulting in a silica content of 93.47%. They noted that a blackish colored RHA resulted from
partial combustion, while a pinkish-white RHA indicated complete combustion, with the latter having
better reactivity during hydration. They concluded that the optimal replacement level of RHA is 10%, as
it significantly enhances compressive strength compared to OPC. 15%-20% of RHA in mortars drastically
affects the workability of the mortar.
Based on the study “Characterization of Silica Produced from Rice Husk Ash: Comparison of Purification
and Processing Methods” by (Fernandes, et al., 2017), which characterized and analyzed the effect in
silica produced of the different processes in extraction and purification of RHA, that it is possible to
produced silica from RHA using simple processes. The purity values they produced and observed are in
between 98.7% and 99.6%. Acid leaching obtained silica that is above 98% while thermal treatment and
sol-gel alkaline extraction at low temperature obtained silica contents were between 99.3% and 99.6%.
They concluded that the most advantageous treatment is the alkaline extraction in low temperature as
it also produced large surface area of silica particles aside from producing high level of purity value.
The study “Modified Water-Cement Ratio Law for Compressive Strength of Rice Husk Ash Concrete”
(Abdullahi, Ojelade, & Auta, 2017) examines the modification of water-cement ratio law for Ordinary
Portland cement-concrete to cater for RHA-concrete. They produced one hundred and fifty (150) RHA
concrete cubes at five different water to binder ratios with six different replacement levels of RHA to
OPC (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30%). The cubes was cured for 56 days and after that all of it were
tested for compressive strengths in the range of 3.77N/mm2to 34.04N/mm2. Giving specific attention to
water/cement content and RHA/water content they conclude that the compressive strength of the
hardened RHA concrete depends on cement/water ratio and RHA/water content. And the range of best
water/cement content they found was between 0.50 and 0.55 as the concrete was very workable with
model given as fcu = -7.026 𝑐𝑤−42.467 𝑟𝑤+ 45.305 that the experimental data was best fitted to the
the replacement of RHA at 15%. They also conclude that with the line of best fit obtained from the
hypothetical model.
According to (Nagrale, Hajare, & Modak, 2012), on their study “Utilization of Rice Husk Ash”, RHA
contains 85%-90% of amorphous silica and has an average size of 68 micrometers and Specific Gravity of
2.11. They note that burning Rice Husk in controlled temperatures below 700 ℃ will produce the best
Pozzolana that is rich in amorphous silica and is highly reactive. While burning Rice Husk in temperature
above 700℃ will produce crystalline silica which is far less reactive. They conclude that adding RHA to
concrete as partial replacement to cement with 15% replacement in different water-cement ratio the
RHA concrete, with 72%-75% weight density reduction of concrete, can be used as light weight concrete
for the construction of structures where the weight of the structure is supreme. The addition of RHA to
concrete increases the compressive strength and considerably reduces water absorption of it. They also
concluded that the cost of 1 m3 of RHA-Concrete cost less by 8%-12% compare to concrete that uses
ordinary Portland cement.
The study “Rice Husk Ash Concrete: The Effect of RHA Average Particle Size on Mechanical Properties
and Drying Shrinkage” by Habeeb and Fayyadh (2009), investigated the behavior of concrete produced
from blending various of Average Particle Size (APS) of RHA with Type 1 cement based on the ASTM
standards. They produced 4 different samples. One concrete mixture with 0% replacement of RHA and
the three others are concrete with 20% RHA replacement but have different grade of RHA (F1, F2 and F3
i.e. 180, 270 and 360 minutes of grinding respectively). They tested the samples for workability, density,
compressive strength, flexural strength, tensile splitting strength, static modulus of elasticity and drying
shrinkage. In their conclusion, the dosage of superplasticizer along with RHA fineness had to be
increased to maintain the desired workability due to the high specific area of the RHA used and by
increasing RHA fineness it will also increase the pozzolanic activity of the RHA that will result to
enhanced strength of the blended concrete as the RHA will act as Micro filler in the concrete matrix.
Also, with the addition of RHA micro fine particles will significantly affect and will significantly increase
the drying shrinkage of the concrete. The mechanical properties in terms of flexural and tensile strength
have been improved with the addition of RHA, with the coarse RHA showing the least improvement, and
the static modulus of elasticity is comparable with slight increase in the RHA concrete mixture.
According to (Talsania, Pitroda, & Vyas, 2015) in their investigation study “Effect of Rice Husk Ash on
Properties of Pervious Concrete”, the water/cement ratio is increase respectively with the compressive
strength and flexural strength. And with the replacement up to 10% of RHA to cement, the compression
strength and flexural strength of the pervious concrete is increased however, beyond that point, the
compressive strength and flexural strength decreases.
Based on the study “Rice Husk Ash and Fly Ash Effects on the Mechanical Properties of Concrete” (Bheel,
et al., 2020), that analyzed the characteristics of concrete of mix proportion of 1:2:4 and 0.55
water/cement ratio with partial replacement of RHA and Fly Ash (FA) to cement with 5%, 10%, 15% and
20% each sample, where the percentage of RHA and FA at each sample are both 50% of the percent
replaced, concluded that with 20% replacement (10% RHA and 10% FA) the slump value was the lowest
with 20mm whereas the conventional sample produced 42mm which was the highest slump value
among the samples. After 28 days of curing, the 20% replacement (10% RHA and 10% FA) produced the
lowest density and the optimum water absorption with the result of 2288kg/m3 and 4.65%,
respectively. Comparing the compressive strength to the conventional sample mix, the sample with 10%
replacement (5% RHA and 5% FA) has improved compressive strength by 14.5% and 16.14% prior to 7
and 28 days of curing, respectively. While with the 20% replacement (10% RHA and 10% FA), comparing
to the conventional sample mix, the compressive strength was reduced by 13.7% and 12.90% prior to 7
and 28 days of curing, respectively. Comparing to the conventional sample mix, for the 20% replacement
(10% RHA and 10% FA) the indirect tensile strength was reduced by 19.6% and 9.30% after 7 and 28 days
of curing, respectively. On the other hand, the 10% replacement (5% RHA and 5% FA) the indirect tensile
strength was enhanced by11.4% and 15.20%. With these, the optimum hardened properties was
obtained with 10% replacement to cement (5% RHA and 5% FA) in concrete.
Based the study “Eco-friendly High Strength, High Ductility Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC)
with Substitution of Fly Ash by Rice Husk Ash” (Zhang, Yang, Liu, & Wang, 2020), the use of RHA can be
used as substitute to fly ash up to 100% ratio substitute in Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC).
The authors produced three sample mix of ratio substitute of RHA to FA by volume and the percentage
of RHA they used were 25%, 50% and 100%. These percentages of preplacement of RHA to fly ash made
the ECC more eco-friendly to the environment. The RHA in ECC mixtures facilitated heat release which
likely contributed to the filler effect of fine RHA particle size resulting to accelerated hydration process.
The matrix of ECC with RHA have lowered the fraction of large capillary pore (>100 nm) and increased
the meso-pore (4.5-50 nm) that consequently causes the refinement of pore distribution in which may
favor the increase of strength in ECC mixture. With 3-days and 28-days of curing, the compressive
strength of RHA incorporated ECC was increased. However with these two curing ages, the highest
compressive strength in each curing age are achieved by two different mixture with different percentage
of RHA replacement. At 3-days curing age, 25%-RHA replacement ECC showed relatively lower
cumulative heat release than the other two mixture and highest compressive strength with 68.78 MPa
which is 44% more than the compressive strength of the conventional mixture. On the other hand, at
28-days curing, the combined filler, packing effects and superior pozzolanic activity of RHA to fly ash
made the mixture with 50% RHA replacement possessed the highest compressive strength with 108.57
MPa which is 32% more than the compressive strength of the conventional mixture. The tensile
properties of ECC mixtures were improved with addition of RHA, except ECC mixture with substitute
ratio of 50% showed a slight reduction in strain capacity yet exhibited highest tensile strength. At micro-
scale, due to the combined filler, packing effects and pozzolanic reactions of RHA, the fiber/matrix
interfacial frictional bond is enhanced as using RHA to substitute fly ash, which well explains the
enhancement in tensile strength of ECCs. In addition, as compared with M-C, the ECC matrix containing
RHA exhibits higher fracture toughness (Km), however, the crack tip toughness (Jtip) is reduced due to
the significant increase of their modulus, which directly resulted in the increment of PSH index and
ductility.
According to Koya and Nair on their study “Sustainable Building Blocks from Rice Husk Ash”, RHA-
Concrete building blocks are successful in overcoming the drawbacks of the conventional concrete
blocks with improved sustainability characteristics. They also concluded that even though the
incorporation of RHA in building blocks slightly decreases the compressive strength of blocks, RHA-
concrete building blocks could satisfy the ASTM standards for load bearing building blocks at 5%
replacement level. Blocks casted with higher replacement levels (25%) also satisfy the IS specification for
load bearing building blocks and utilization of RHA, an agricultural waste material as cement
replacement in the proposed RHA concrete building blocks adds to environmental sustainability.
Based on the study “Effect of Waste Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Structural, Thermal and Acoustic Properties
of Fired Clay Bricks” by (De Silva & Perera, 2018), RHA can be a SiO2 provider for clay materials. They
experimented on fired clay bricks by mixing different percentage (by weight) of RHA into clay that will be
used to produce fired clay brick. After that they evaluated the effect of RHA to the physical properties,
chemical composition of the materials, structural properties, thermal performance and acoustic
performance of the bricks. They concluded that incorporation RHA can be utilized as an additive for
manufacturing of fired clay bricks. It also improves the structural, thermal and acoustic performance of
the bricks. They found that optimum amount of RHA that could replace clay was 4% by weight. The
compressive strength of the 4% RHA blended bricks compared to the conventional fired clay bricks
improved by 32.7%, the recordedcompressive strength is 3.55 N/mm2. And the water absorption was
found to be 19% that satisfy the recommended level for moderate weathering resistance. The RHA
blended bricks have low density and also highly porous. The thermal performance of RHA blended bricks
improved as it reduces the indoor temperature during the peak temperature of day by 6 ℃. The acoustic
performance of RHA blended bricks compared with the conventional fired clay bricks gave the result of
10dB reduction in the frequency band from 4.5 kHz to 8 kHz which shows better insulation performance.
According to study “Microstructure Characteristics of Fly Ash Concrete with Rice Husk Ash and Lime
Stone Powder” (Jung, Velu, Karthick, Kathirvel, & Kwon, 2018), the binder in Fly Ash Concrete, which is
simply Fly Ash, can be partially replaced by the combination of RHA and Lime Powder (LP). Making the
total binder to sand ratio constant, experimental results of various proportion of RHA and LP showed
improvement of chemical properties and morphology. At the addition of 10% RHA and 10% LP, calcium
silicate hydrate in void formation was accelerated and the strength exhibit the excellent result. The
substitution of Lime Powder exhibits calcium hydroxide platelet along with small calcium silicate hydrate
fibers covered the anhydrous grains of calcium silicate modifying the microstructure of the mortar
matrix. And by observing the different crystallization of hydrates with various mixture and increasing
replacement of cement from ordinary pozzolanic reaction of fly ash, it showed significant modification
of microstructure which is demonstrated either by the presence of micro cracks in the matrix or by an
alternative hydrates development in the case of calcium hydroxide.
Based on the study “Utilization of Rice Husk Ash as Partial Replacement for Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) in Thermal Resistant Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB)” (Carig, et al., 2015), the amount of silica
content in RHA is proved to be a good provider of amorphous silica with 85.30% and is a reasonable
pozzolan conforming to ASTM C 618 with the value of 70%. They concluded that RHA-CHB achieved the
best thermal performance in terms of thermal conductivity, thermal resistance and thermal
conductance by 15% replacement of RHA to OPC. The 15%RHA-CHB has a thermal conductivity of 0.3190
W/m∙K, hence, further increasing the RHA content will produced lower thermal conductivity and
thermal conductance values compared to the controlled mix.
Approximately 158 million hectares are produced around the world. 90% of the global production are
produced in Asia alone according to (Ricepedia: The online authority on rice, n.d.). Each year, hundreds
of millions of rice straw and rice husks are also produced as it is the waste byproduct of rice. The hulls or
husks of rice grains is 20% of the weight of a rice grain. These residues are generally have little to no
commercial value making it agricultural waste. Some of the farmers use it as a fuel but burning of rice
residues causes severe air pollution but incorporating it into the soil is a major source of methane
emissions from rice fields. According to Salman Zafar in his article in (BioEnergy Consult: Powering a
Greener Future, n.d.), rice produced in the year 2019 in the Philippines is around 19 million tons. An
average Filipino consumes above 100 kilograms of rice per year making the Filipinos one of the world’s
biggest rice consumer. As a result of 19 million tons of rice production in 2019, the rice husks production
is estimated more than 2 million tons which is equivalent to approximately 5 million barrels of oil in
terms of energy.
According to PhilRice engineer Eden Gagelonia in an interview on one article of Philippine Star that
promotes rice husk as alternative energy source in 2016, a kilo of rice husk can provide sufficient
amount of clean gaseous fuel when gasified as it contains 3000 kilocalories of heat energy. Also, based
on the said article, rice husks are sold locally for 1.80 pesos per kilogram where the Philippines produces
an average of 2 million metric tons of rice husks each year however, most of it were dumped at the back
of rice mills or burned on the road side.
In 2018, according to an article on Manila Bulletin that is published in 2020, Pilmico Foods Corporation
started using a biomass boiler that utilized rice husks which are byproducts of rice production as
alternative to bunker fuels for its food production. With this, the company was able to cut more than 60
percent of its bunker fuel use and they also reduced their production cost and carbon footprint. By using
rice husk as fuel they are also producing Rice Husk Ash as waste ash. So in the year 2020, their engineers
conducted a series of experiment in attempt to establish a concrete mix from waste ash. This is to
minimize the cost and further reduce waste from Pilmico’s Tarlac feeds and farms facility. According to
the article, they established a concrete mix with 20% replacement of cement by rice husk ash. The waste
ash mixture supplemented the concrete mix for road perimeters including curb and gutter that control
water flow by coursing it to specific drainages that helps to avoid flooding around the facility.
In June 2021, a market research by MENAFN – GetNews listed rice husk ash as one of the specialty silica
in the market. The report said that the global specialty silica market is more likely to grow more than 6%
by the year of 2027. It mentioned that silica is a major constituent of rice husk ash and it contains
approximately 80% - 90% of silica. The rate of recovery of precipitated silica from rice husk based on the
report is 90% - 95% ash if the conversion efficiency is more than 70%.
Pozzolans like rice husk ash (RHA) shall conform to ASTM C618. The silica content of RHA should pass
the said standard if it is to be used in concrete. The minimum silica requirement of ASTM C618 is 50%
for class C pozzolan, and 70% for both class F and class N pozzolan. For fineness, the amount retain
when wet-sieved on no. 325 sieve should not exceed 34% of the sample.
DPWH mandated the standard specifications for concrete hollow blocks (CHB) on the Department Order
230 series of 2016 “Standard Specification for ITEM1046 – Masonry Works”. It said that the physical
requirements of CHB should conform to ASTM C90 “Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete
Masonry Units” if it is Loadbearing CHB and ASTM C129 “Standard Specification for Nonloadbearing
Concrete Masonry Units” if it is nonloadbearing CHB. And it also said that the other constituents for CHB
such as airentraining agents, coloring pigments, integral water repellents, finely ground silica, and other
more constituents should also conform to the applicable ASTM standards or should be shown by test or
experience not to be detrimental to the durability of the concrete masonry units or any material
customarily used in masonry construction.
ASTM C90 and ASTM C129 covers the physical specifications of hollow and solid masonry units for that is
made from hydraulic cement, water, and mineral aggregates with or without the inclusion of other
materials. It also covered three classes of masonry units that is suitable for loadbearing and
nonloadbearing applications: Normal weight, medium weight and lightweight masonry units. ASTM C90
is the standard specification for Loadbearing CMU while ASTM C129 is for Nonloadbearing CMU. The
loadbearing CMU should have a minimum compressive strength of 12.4 MPa or 1800psi for individual
units and 13.8 MPa or 2000psi for the average of 3 units. The nonloadbearing CMU should have the
minimum compressive strength of 3.45 MPa or 500psi and 4.14 MPa or 600psi for individual unit and
average of 3 units, respectively.
Synthesis of Reviewed Literature and Studies
The reviewed literature consistently highlights the role of pozzolans in forming calcium silicate hydrate
(CSH) when combined with water and calcium hydroxide/Portland Cement in concrete mixes. This
process reduces expansion from alkali-silica reaction and enhances the strength, impermeability, and
sulfate resistance of the concrete. Rice husk ash (RHA), containing more than 80% silica (by weight) in an
amorphous form, serves as an effective artificial pozzolan. Modified preparation processes, involving
controlled burning temperatures (400℃ - 700℃) and slow cooling (6-8 hours), can further increase
RHA's silica content to nearly 95%. Properly executed, these methods yield a highly siliceous RHA
suitable for use as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM).
The studies reviewed primarily employed RHA replacement levels of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% for
Portland cement, pozzolans, and other binders in concrete mixes, with samples cured for various
durations (3, 7, 14, and 28 days). The results indicate that RHA-concrete samples exhibit improved
characteristics over time, with performance varying based on the replacement percentage. For
example, compressive strength generally increases up to a certain RHA percentage, after which it may
decline. While most studies observed a reduction in workability at RHA replacement levels exceeding
20%, other characteristics like permeability may continue to improve. It's important to note that the
optimal RHA percentage depends on the desired concrete properties and the specific application.
The reviewed studies and literature collectively demonstrate the potential of rice husk ash (RHA) as a
valuable admixture in construction materials, contributing to both improved performance and
sustainable waste management. Therefore, this study aligns with the replacement percentages (5%,
10%, 15%, and 20%) of RHA to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) used in the reviewed studies. These
percentages will be used as replacement levels of RHA to OPC in concrete hollow blocks (CHB), and the
resulting CHBs will be tested according to relevant ASTM standards for masonry materials. This research
will address the identified gaps in the literature by investigating the impact of these RHA replacement
levels on both the thermal performance and structural integrity of CHBs, particularly their resistance to
Climate changes.