CHAPTER-4: GEOLOGIC HAZARDS

A geologic hazard is a natural geologic event that can endanger human lives and threaten
human property. Earthquakes, geomagnetic storms, landslides, sinkholes, tsunamis, and
volcanoes are all types of geologic hazards.

4.1. Earthquake hazards

The term "earthquake" refers to the vibration of the Earth's surface caused by movement along
a fault, by a volcanic eruption, or even by manmade explosions. The vibration can be violent
and cause widespread damage and injury, or may be barely felt. Most destructive earthquakes
are caused by movements along faults. Earthquakes can occur at the surface of the Earth or as
deep as 400 miles below the surface. An earthquake can trigger additional hazards such as
landslides or tsunamis.

 Many seismologists have said that "earthquakes don't kill people, buildings do". This is
because most deaths from earthquakes are caused by buildings or other human
construction falling down during an earthquake.

 Earthquakes located in isolated areas far from human population rarely cause any
deaths.

 Thus, earthquake hazard risk depends on

1. Population density
2. Construction standards (building codes)
3. Emergency preparedness

Examples:

 Worst earthquake in recorded history occurred in 1556 in Shaaxi, China. Killed 83,000
people, most living in caves excavated in poorly consolidated loess (wind deposited silt
and clay).

 Worst earthquake in this century also occurred in China (T'ang Shan Province), killed
240,000 in 1976. Occurred at 3:42 a.m., Magnitude 7.8 Earthquake and magnitude 7.1
aftershock. Deaths were due to collapse of masonry (brick) buildings.

 Contrast - In earthquake prone areas like California, in order to reduce earthquake risk,
there are strict building codes requiring the design and construction of buildings and
other structures that will withstand a large earthquake. While this program is not
always completely successful, one fact stands out to prove its effectiveness. In 1989 an
earthquake near San Francisco, California (The Loma Prieta, or World Series
Earthquake) with a Richter Magnitude of 7.1 killed about 62 people. Most were killed
 when a double decked freeway in Oakland collapsed. About 10 months later, an
earthquake with magnitude 6.9 occurred in Armenia, where no earthquake proof
building codes existed. The death toll in the latter earthquake was about 25,000!

 Computer simulations for large cities, like San Francisco or Los Angeles, California,
indicate that a magnitude >8.0 earthquake would cause between 3,000 and 13,000
deaths.

Architecture and Building Codes

While architecture and building codes can reduce risk, it should be noted that not all
kinds of behavior can be predicted.

 Although codes are refined each year, not all possible effects can be anticipated.
For example different earthquakes show different frequencies of ground
shaking, different durations of ground shaking, and different vertical and
horizontal ground accelerations.

 Old buildings cannot cost-effectively be brought up to code, especially with

yearly refinements to code.
  Even with construction to earthquake code, buildings fail for other reasons, like
poor quality materials, poor workmanship, etc. that are not discovered until
after an earthquake.

Seismic Hazard and Risk Mapping

The risk that an earthquake will occur close to where you live depends on whether or
not tectonic activity that causes deformation is occurring within the crust of that area.

 For the U.S., the risk is greatest in the most tectonically active area that is near
the plate margin in the Western U.S. Here, the San Andreas Fault which forms
the margin between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate is
responsible for about 1 magnitude 8 or greater earthquake per century.

 Also in the western U.S. is the Basin and Range Province, where extensional
stresses in the crust have created many normal faults that are still active.

 Historically, large earthquakes have also occurred in the area of New Madrid,
Missouri; Charleston, South Carolina; Boston, Massachusetts; and along the St.
Lawrence River near the New York - Canada Border. Why earthquakes occur in
these other areas is not well understood, however, if earthquakes have occurred
before, they are expected to occur again.

Another way of looking a seismic risk that is more useful to construction designers and
engineers, and therefore to the development of building codes is based on expected horizontal
ground acceleration. Acceleration is measured relative to the acceleration due to gravity (g, 980
cm/sec2). Ground accelerations of 0.1g are considered able to cause damage. Figure 3.19 in
your text shows a seismic risk map based on ground acceleration, with the probability that such
accelerations will occur in any 50 year period being 1 in 10.

Hazards Associated with Earthquakes

Possible hazards from earthquakes can be classified as follows:

Ground Motion - Shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves,
especially surface waves near the epicenter of the earthquake are responsible for the
most damage during an earthquake. The intensity of ground shaking depends on:

 Local geologic conditions in the area. In general, loose unconsolidated sediment

is subject to more intense shaking than solid bedrock.

 Size of the Earthquake. In general, the larger the earthquake, the more intense
is the shaking and the duration of the shaking.
  Distance from the Epicenter. Shaking is most severe near the epicenter and
drops off away from the epicenter. The distance factor depends on the type of
material underlying the area. There are, however, strange exceptions. For
example, the 1985 Mexico City Earthquake (magnitude 8.1) had an epicenter on
the coast of Mexico, more than 350 km to the south, yet damage in Mexico City
was substantial because Mexico City is built on soft unconsolidated sediments
that fill a former lake (see Liquefaction, below).

 Damage to structures from shaking depends on the type of construction.

o Concrete and masonry structures are brittle and thus more susceptible to
damage
o Wood and steel structures are more flexible and thus less susceptible to
damage.

Faulting and Ground Rupture - Ground rupture only occurs along the fault zone that moves
during the earthquake. Thus structures that are built across fault zones may collapse, whereas
structures built adjacent to, but not crossing the fault may survive.

Aftershocks - These are usually smaller earthquakes that occur after a main earthquake, and in
most cases there are many of these (1260 were measured after the 1964 Alaskan Earthquake).
Aftershocks occur because the main earthquake changes the stress pattern in areas around the
epicenter, and the crust must adjust to these changes. Aftershocks are very dangerous because
they cause further collapse of structures damaged by the main shock.

Fire - Fire is a secondary effect of earthquakes. Because power lines may be knocked down and
because natural gas lines may rupture due to an earthquake, fires are often started closely
following an earthquake. The problem is compounded if water lines are also broken during the
earthquake since there will not be a supply of water to extinguish the fires once they have
started. In the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco more than 90% of the damage to buildings was
caused by fire.
Landslides - In mountainous regions subjected to earthquakes ground shaking may trigger
landslides, rock and debris falls, rock and debris slides, slumps, and debris avalanches.

Liquefaction - Liquefaction is a process that occurs in water-saturated unconsolidated sediment

due to shaking. In areas underlain by such material, the ground shaking causes the grains to
lose grain to grain contact, and thus the material tends to flow.

You can demonstrate this process to yourself next time your go the beach. Stand on the sand
just after an incoming wave has passed. The sand will easily support your weight and you will
not sink very deeply into the sand if you stand still. But, if you start to shake your body while
standing on this wet sand, you will notice that the sand begins to flow as a result of
liquefaction, and your feet will sink deeper into the sand.
Changes in Ground Level - A secondary or tertiary effect that is caused by faulting. Earthquakes
may cause both uplift and subsidence of the land surface. During the 1964 Alaskan Earthquake,
some areas were uplifted up to 11.5 meters, while other areas subsided up to 2.3 meters.

Tsunamis - Tsunamis are giant ocean waves that can rapidly travel across oceans, as will be
discussed in more detail later. Earthquakes that occur beneath sea level and along coastal areas
can generate tsunamis, which can cause damage thousands of kilometers away on the other
side of the ocean.

Flooding - Flooding is a secondary effect that may occur due to rupture of human made dams,
due to tsunamis, and as a result of ground subsidence after an earthquake.
 World Distribution of Earthquakes

The distribution of earthquakes is called seismicity. Seismicity is highest along relatively narrow
belts that coincide with plate boundaries. This makes sense, since plate boundaries are zones
along which lithospheric plates move relative to one another.

Earthquakes along these zones can be divided into shallow focus earthquakes that have focal
depths less than about 100 km and deep focus earthquakes that have focal depths between
100 and 700 km.

4.2. Volcanic Hazards

A volcano is a vent at the Earth's surface through which magma and associated gases erupt, and
also the cone built by eruptions. A volcano that is currently erupting or showing signs of unrest
(earthquakes, gas emissions) is considered active. A volcano that is not currently active but
which could become active again is considered dormant. Extinct volcanoes are those
considered unlikely to erupt again.
Volcanoes are the symptom of volcanic activity. Many different types of volcanoes, depending
on the material being erupted. Some are more dangerous and destructive than others. They
often have very different and unique eruptive behaviors or personalities. Need to study each of
them as individuals. Volcanoes can be very destructive locally, regionally, nationally, and even
globally. Again depends on the type and behavior of the individual volcano.

I. Types of Volcanoes: Depends on what is the dominant material being erupted, either lava,
pyroclastics (solid pieces), or gas.

Lava: Can be low in viscosity (runny) if basalt or high in viscosity (thick and pasty) if rhyolite.
Pyroclastics: Can be erupted explosively and can spread over huge areas and even around the
globe.
Gas: Can be toxic or can be the driving force for explosive eruptions. Can use a Volcanic
Explosivity Index (VEI: 0-8) to compare the explosive power of volcanoes. Generally, the more
explosive a volcano the less frequently it erupts. Therefore, we know the least about the most
dangerous because we haven't experienced them yet.

1) Flood (Plateau) Basalts - don't even look like volcanoes. Lava is very low in
viscosity and it flows easily over huge areas. Flow upon flow from long fissures
creates a high plateau area. Made almost entirely of basalt lava; little pyroclastics
and gas. Examples: Columbia River Flood Basalts, Watchung Basalts of NJ, Deccan
Basalts of India.

2) Shield Volcanoes - Broad, massive volcanoes that may be tens of thousands of

feet tall and hundreds of miles across. Gently sloping. Made mostly of basalt. Usually
erupt fairly quietly. Examples: Hawaii, Iceland, Martian volcanoes

3) Lava (Rhyolite) Domes - Squat plugs of thick pasty rhyolite lava. Typically a few
hundred feet tall and a mile or so across. Lava oozes out of the ground like
toothpaste. Example, Mono Lakes, CA.

4) Composite or Stratovolcanoes - Classic, cone-like, symmetrical volcanoes made of

alternating layers of thick, pasty lava and pyroclastics. Typically thousands of feet tall
and tens of miles across. Can erupt explosively because the magma is often gas
charged. VERY DANGEROUS. Can explode themselves out of existence. Examples:
Cascades (NW U.S.) Andes, Japan (Mt. Fuji).

5) Cinder Cones - Made up entirely of pyroclastics. Often small structures a few

hundred feet tall and a mile or so across. Usually flat topped. Often found on the
sides of other, larger volcanoes. Example: Craters of Moon, ID.

6) Calderas - A large depression in the ground caused by eruption of large volumes

of magma. Roof of chamber collapses causing the ground to subside. Often
 associated with cataclysmic eruptions. May tens of miles across and thousands of
feet deep. Examples: Yellowstone National Park, Crater Lake.

Figure: Volcano effects.

Different volcano types often associated with a particular plate tectonic environment.
Divergent: Shield volcanoes and flood basalts as in Iceland.
Convergent: Composite volcanoes and lava domes as in the Cascades.
Hot Spots: In the oceans get shield volcanoes and flood basalts as in Hawaii. On the
continents get large calderas as in Yellowstone.

Volcanic Hazards are many different types, some obvious, some not.
1) Lava - 800 - 1200 degrees C - generally destroys property only - can out walk most
lava flows. Three types:
a) Pahoehoe - smooth ropy surface
b) AA- rough jagged surface
c) Block - large boulders and rubble.
Flows move downhill and contained within valleys - easy to predict where they will go. May
extend for many miles. May be contained by natural and man-made barriers. Can also be
controlled by spraying water. This cools and solidifies the flow as was done at Heimaey, Iceland
in 1973. Explosions may also divert flows by punching holes in solidifying crust. At least
somewhat predictable

2) Pyroclastics - ash falls and flows - vary in size of particles. May spread for hundreds of
or even thousands of miles and be transported around the world by winds of the upper
atmosphere. Examples: Pompeii and Krakatoa
Volcanoes can eject many cubic miles of materials.

3) Nuee Ardentes - means glowing cloud - hot (600-1000 C). Pyroclastics/air mixture -
speeds of 150km/hr. Can spread over many square miles. Examples: Mt Saint Helens - 175 sq.
miles destroyed; Mount Pelee, Martinique - 1902 - about 35000 dead.

4) Lahars - mud flows caused by ash mixing with water from glacial melting - may travel
many miles (100) from volcano downstream channels. Potentially they are very destructive.
Examples: Mt. Rainier, Washington; Mt Pinatubo, Philippines.

5) Gases - H2O, CO2, SO2, HCl, HF - toxic and deadly. Collect in low-lying areas (denser
than air). Examples: Vesuvius, 79 A.D; Nyos volcano, Cameroon.

6) Steam Explosions (Phreatic Eruptions). Water comes into contact with magma and
flashes into steam - powerful explosions. Example: Krakatoa, 1883 - shot material 80 km into
the air - explosion heard 3000 miles away - ash covered 750,000 sq. km, 100 ft tsunamis, 35,000
killed.
Evaluation of Risk
1) 1) Past behavior - eruptive style, sequence.
2) 2) Topography - which areas affected by a particular hazard? Study path of previous
lava flows, lahars, and nuee ardentes.
3) 3) Weather patterns- prevailing winds control ash dispersal - Mt. St Helen, towns
100+ miles away covered with ash.
Climatic Effects
Volcanic ash blocks sunlight and some of the gases (SO4) reflect sunlight, cooling the climate.
Other gases (CO2) warm the atmosphere by absorbing solar energy (the greenhouse effect)
and, therefore, warm climate. Sulfuric acid may cause widespread acid rain.
Examples: 1815 - Tambora, Indonesia; 1816 - year without summer.
1883 - Krakatoa, Indonesia - cooling lasted 10 years.
1991 - Pinatubo, Philippines - dropped global temperatures by
about 1-2 degrees.
A large enough, prolonged eruption (1,000-1,000,000 years) may cause large-scale global
climate change. Perhaps even cause glacial episodes and effect extinctions or human history.
Predicting Volcanic Eruptions
Many different methods used. Often much more successful and predicting volcanic eruptions
than earthquakes. However, each volcano is different and can't always apply predictive
techniques that work at one volcano to another.
1) Cyclicity: global average of about 220 years between eruptions. Some erupt almost
continually. Others erupt about once every 10,000-1,000,000 years. Have to know the cycle
for each volcano.
2) Eruption Sequence: Mauna Loa and Kilauea show a distinct sequence of events prior to
and after the eruption (typically shallowing earthquakes, inflation, eruption, deflation). The
eruptions themselves also show a distinct sequence of summit eruptions followed by flank
eruptions.
 3) Precursory Events: Can measure changes in a number of physical properties associated
with the volcano.

a) Thermal activity - hot springs, steam vents, geysers, etc. Increasing activity before
eruptions. Increased heat flow measured by planes or satellites.

b) Change in gas composition - increase in HCl, SO2, and other gasses before eruptions.

c) Changes in magmatic field and electrical conduction

d) Increased seismicity - depth becomes shallower as magma rises toward surface.

Distinctive harmonic tremors due to magma movement in conduits.

e) Bulging, tilting, and swelling -volcano inflates as magma rises into it.
Example: Mt. St. Helens bulged 100 meters towards the north.

4) Animal Behavior: Very uncertain. Always anecdotal.

Much uncertainty, but can now predict some eruptions with great accuracy, though not always
exactly. Best response to prediction is evacuation (avoidance principal - problem of economic
disruption). Eruption may or may not occur when predicted- may go on for months or even
years.
4.3. Tsunami

 An earthquake that occurs under the ocean has the potential to form a tsunami.
- Tsunami is a Japanese word with “tsu” meaning harbor and “nami” meaning wave.
 Not every earthquake will form a tsunami; the movement must result in the Vertical
Displacement of water.
 That is: if a piece of the ocean floor moves either up or down (see the Extension and
Compression fault examples) the ocean water will be rapidly displaced and this will form
waves at the surface.
 If two pieces of crust slide past each other (see Transform fault example) there is no vertical
movement of the crust or the overlying water and a tsunami will not form.
 1. Shows normal conditions. Note the presence of a pre-existing crack or fault in the
seafloor
2. The earthquake! An earthquake causes a piece of the seafloor to be pushed up into the
overlying ocean. This causes the water to also be displaced/pushed up.
3. The displaced water forms tsunami wave that can travel thousands of kilometers before
it reaches land. The wave will break when it does eventually reach the shore potentially
causing flooding as the water level rises well above normal sea level.
4. Mud, sand and a trail of debris (trees, building material etc) is left deposited on the sea
shore after the wave has subsided.
☻☻☻ You most probably remember the 2004 South Asian Boxing Day tsunami event. This
tsunami was caused by an earthquake of the coast of Sumatra that measured a magnitude of
9.2!! The biggest earthquake recorded in 40 years!

•The earthquake off the Sumatran coast was originally recorded as 9.0 but has been increased
to 9.2. At this magnitude it is the second largest earthquake ever recorded.
•This earthquake was also reported to have the longest duration of faulting, lasting between
500 and 600 seconds (8.3 to 10 minutes).
•The earthquake was so large that it caused the entire planet to vibrate as much as half an inch,
or over a centimeter!!
•It occurred at a convergent tectonic plate boundary, where an estimated 1,600 km of fault line
slipped about 15 m (a LOT of rock moved!).
•The earthquake released 20 x 1017 Joules of energy, which is like setting off 475 million
kilograms of TNT or 23,000 atomic bombs!!
NOTE: The largest earthquake ever recorded, which measured 9.5, was in Chile on May 22,
1960.

The sudden vertical rise of the seabed during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of
water, resulting in a tsunami that struck the coasts of 12 countries around the Indian Ocean.
Because of the distances involved, the tsunami took anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven
hours (for Somalia) to reach the various coastlines. The northern regions of the Indonesian
island of Sumatra were hit very quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit
roughly 90 minutes to two hours later. The tsunami caused widespread flooding and fatalities.
Thousands of people died and many more were displaced from their homes.

Tsunami’s can be extremely devastating - but the question is, what can we do about them?
Firstly, we can monitor for them:

•If there is an earthquake in the ocean, specialist monitoring stations like the Pacific Tsunami
Warning Centre (PTWC) can monitor the ocean surface using satellites, radar and buoys in the
water that measure current speed and waves. These systems will pick up the presence of a
tsunami.
•If a tsunami does occur the PTWC can warn local authorities in the areas where the tsunami is
likely to hit.
•Computer simulations, using the speed of the tsunami wave, can estimate the time of arrival
for the tsunami.
•This technology is very expensive to run and maintain however, and many poorer countries
have to rely on stations from other countries that are far away. For example a tsunami that hit
Papua New Guinea in 1998 was undetected as it originated close to the island and was
undetected by the PTWC which is located in Hawaii.
Some areas, such as Hawaii, have building restrictions in hazard prone regions. For example,
tsunamis hit the town of Hilo in 1946 and 1960 destroying the harbor and a large part of the
town. Now, this region of the city has a ban on the construction of new buildings there and the
majority of the land has been turned into a park.

Seawalls have been constructed on many beaches not only for protection against tsunamis but
also the hazards of large storm waves.

•Seawalls are designed to make waves break early (before the shoreline), therefore dissipating
their energy before they reach the shore.
Some walls are designed to build up the shoreline to prevent waves from over topping the
shore and flowing into residential areas.

Finally, to protect the population against tsunamis they need to be educated about the hazards
involved and warning systems (sirens, emergency service teams) and evacuation plans (escape
to higher ground) need to be established.

Same Storm has different names depending on where you are in the world. Tropical storms
have different names:

- In the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (eastern) they are called hurricanes: average of 10
named storms per season, 6 becoming hurricanes
- Over the western Pacific Ocean they are called typhoons: average of 16 named
storms per season, 9 becoming typhoons
- The western Pacific Ocean is a major source of tropical storms as the water is
warmest and there are large distances between landmasses.
- Over the Indian Ocean the storms are called cyclones. “Cyclone” is the best overall
phrase to use for high intensity rotating storms.
•Storms that form north of the equator spin counterclockwise. Storms south of the equator spin
clockwise. This difference is because of Earth's rotation on its axis.
•Tropical cyclones are a MAJOR natural hazard that can cause large numbers of fatalities and
extensive damage. For example, the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone, “Cyclone Gorky”, was among
the deadliest tropical cyclones on record. On the night of the 29th of August the cyclone struck
the southeastern coast of Bangladesh with winds of around 250 km/h (155 mph). The storm
forced a 6 meter (20 foot) storm surge wave inland over a wide area, killing at least 138,000
people and leaving as many as 10 million homeless.
•Cyclones can devastate large areas, for example, Hurricane Katrina (August 2005, USA) had
gale force winds extending 120 miles (190 km) from the storm centre (“eye of the storm”) -
remember cyclones are radial (circular) so that makes it approximately 240 miles (380 km) from
one side to the other!
•In 1999 Hurricane Floyd caused 2.6-million coastal residents across the entire US state of
Florida to evacuate their homes.
•The hurricane produced torrential rainfall that caused widespread flooding over a period of
several weeks; nearly every river basin in the eastern part of the state exceeded 500-year flood
levels. Hurricane Floyd was responsible for 57 fatalities and US$5.6 billion of damage.
•Tropical cyclones form only over warm ocean waters near the equator.
When the winds in the rotating storm reach 39 mph (63 kmph), the storm is called a “tropical
storm”. And when the wind speeds reach 74 mph (119 kmph), the storm is officially a “tropical
cyclone” or hurricane. Tropical cyclones usually weaken when they hit land, because they are
no longer being “fed” by the energy from the warm ocean waters. However, they often move
far inland, dumping many centimeters of rain and causing lots of wind damage before they die
out completely.

•Cyclones are divided into categories depending on the strength of the winds produced. There
are many different classification scales but the most familiar with is the Saffir-Simpson
Hurricane Scale. This scale is used to describe storms in Hollywood movies, Example “Twister”
and “The Day After Tomorrow”.
The classifications (1-5) are intended primarily for use in measuring the potential damage and
flooding (storm surge) a cyclone will cause upon landfall.

NOTE: You may probably would have seen on the news in 2005 the devastating effect that
Hurricane Katrina had on the area of New Orleans and surrounds. Hurricane Katrina was the
costliest and one of the deadliest hurricanes in the history of the USA. It was the sixth-strongest
Atlantic hurricane ever recorded and the third-strongest hurricane on record that made landfall
in the United States. Katrina formed on the 23rd of August 2005 and caused devastation along
much of the north-central Gulf Coast of the United States. The most severe loss of life and
property damage occurred in New Orleans, which flooded as the previously emplaced flood
defenses failed. The hurricane caused severe destruction across the entire coast of Mississippi
and Alabama, as far as 100 miles (160 km) from the storm's centre. There were at least 1,836
fatalities recorded and damage estimates are over 81 billion US dollars!
How to do mitigate the risk from a cyclone?

- Early warning systems are needed to give people time to make their home safe (e.g. board up
windows and doors), or to evacuate to a designated shelter. This may come in the forms of
alarms or sirens sounded throughout a town, or notification by radio, television and local
enforcement services (police, fire brigade etc.).
- Meteorological stations around the globe can trace the track of a cyclone and predict when
and where the storm will make landfall. So in many cases warnings can be made in advance of
the disaster.
- In cyclone-prone regions infrastructure can be emplaced to decrease the damage caused by
the cyclone. For example, “cyclone walls” may be built along coastal areas to stop or lessen the
impact of a storm surge. These can also be used as roads along which residents can evacuate.
-In low-lying coastal regions communal storm shelters can be built. These act as an evacuation
point for people living in the surrounding areas.
-For all of these measures to work the population needs to be educated about the threat of the
storms and what to do in case of an emergency.
Natural Hazards such as earthquakes, tsunami’s, cyclones, volcanic eruption, avalanches and
landslides, and more are a major cause of fatalities.

Every year there are close to 10,000 fatalities caused by natural hazards. In the event of large-
scale events this number rises to tens of thousands!
Natural Hazards cannot be stopped, however measures can be taken to lessen the impact they
have on the population. To do this, we need to understand the processes involved for each type
of event and work out individual emergency plans of action.