CHAPTER-2: MINERALS

Minerals are a critical part of our everyday life. They are used in the construction of our buildings,
homes, roads, and machines. They are used to fertilize our crops, produce energy for our homes,
add flavor to our foods, and even make many of our medicines. As civilizations progressed from the
Stone Age to the present, humans learned new and different ways to use minerals and earth
materials to better their living conditions. Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals. Therefore,
mineral identification is also a crucial part of rock classification.

2.1. Definition

I. Mineral is naturally-occurring solid with an ordered atomic arrangement and a chemical

composition which is fixed or which varies only within well-defined limits.

A. Naturally-occurring - "nonsynthetic" - This eliminates all unnatural man-made substances like

plastic and synthetic compounds.

B. Solid - This eliminates gases and liquids.

C. Ordered atomic arrangement - "atoms are arranged in some geometric pattern" - This
eliminates inhomogeneous solids such as glass. The ordered atomic arrangement is reflected in the
crystal form and cleavage of the mineral (example - the rhombs of calcite).

D. Chemical composition which is fixed or which varies within well-defined limits - "all
minerals are characterized by a chemical formula" - Some minerals have chemical substitutions in
which ions of similar size and charge freely substitute for each other (such as the plagioclase series).

2.2. Composition and Crystalline Structure

Most minerals contain impurities and several also display ionic substitution. There are other minerals
which have identical chemical compositions, but different crystalline structures due to the conditions
under which they crystallized.

A. Impurities - Most minerals have non-structural ions trapped or included in the atomic
structure during growth of the structure. Example - quartz - SiO2

Impurity Color Name

None Clear Water Quartz

Water White Milky Quartz

Iron Purple Amethyst

Titanium Pink Rose Quartz

 B. Ionic Substitution - variations in composition resulting from a systematic substitution of
ions - There are several minerals which display solid solution (solids which act like solutions
during crystallization and melting). The olivine group, forsterite (Mg2SiO4) - fayalite
(Fe2SiO4) is a good example. Both Mg+2 and Fe+2 have the same charge (+2) and about the
same ionic size so that either can fit into the olivine crystalline structure.
Coupled Ion Substitution - the plagioclase series - NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8 is an example
of a solid solution with coupled ion substitution - The ions don't have the same charge, but
are able to substitute for one another when coupled with another ion. Within the plagioclase
crystal structure, Ca+2and Al+3 with a combined charge of +5 substitute for Na+1 and Si+4
which also have a combined charge of +5.
C. Polymorphs - minerals which have the identical chemical composition, but different
internal structure - The best examples are the carbon polymorphs, diamond and graphite,
which are both, composed of pure carbon but have substantial differences in their atomic
packing and bonding.

2.3. Physical Properties

A. Crystal Form - the shape of a mineral when bounded by smooth, planar surfaces which form
regular geometric patterns - The formation of crystal faces requires favorable conditions such as
cooling rate, pressure, and available space. Crystal form is often used in determining the amount of
symmetry present in the crystalline structure.

B. Hardness - measure of the mineral's ability to resist abrasion - Hardness reflects the strength of
the bond between atoms within the crystal structure. It is often variable with orientation due to
differences in bond strength with changes in crystal orientation.

Moh's Hardness Scale - a relative, not an absolute scale of mineral hardness:

1. Talc, 2. Gypsum (Fingernail (2.2)), 3. Calcite (Copper penny (3.1)), 4. Fluorite 5. Apatite
(Glass (5.5)) 6. Orthoclase (Steel (6.5)) 7. Quartz, 8. Topaz 9. Corundum 10. Diamond

C. Breakage

1. Cleavage - tendency of minerals to break along parallel planes of weaknesses (cleavage planes)
within the crystal forming parallel planar surfaces along broken fragments - Cleavage results from
weaker bond strengths along the certain planar directions within the mineral. *The number of
cleavage planes and the angles between the cleavage planes are important characteristics used in
identifying minerals (example - micas, excellent cleavage in 1 direction; halite, good cleavage in three
directions, each at 90o to each other; and sphalerite, 6 good directions not at 90o).

Important: *Difference between cleavage and crystal form - crystal form is only an external
reflection of atomic structure which is lost when the crystal is broken. In contrast, cleavage is related
to planes of weakness which are found throughout the mineral. Cleavage planes will form no matter
how finely the crystal is broken.
2. Fracture - a lack of cleavage that results in an absence of planar surfaces when the mineral is
broken - Minerals that display fracture break like glass. (Example. - quartz with conchoidal
fracture).

D. Specific Gravity - comparison of a mineral's density with the density of water.

Specific Gravity = density of the mineral / density of equal vol. of water = X / 1 gr. /cm3

Example - graphite 2.4 gr. /cm3, so Sp.G. =2.4 (unit less).

Galena = 7.5, gold = 15 to 19

E. Color - useful for some minerals (ex. olivine is always green), but commonly too variable for
most (ex. quartz can be almost any color).

F. Luster - appearance of the mineral in reflected light - Luster is described as metallic or non-
metallic. Sub metallic is further described as vitreous (glassy) or non-vitreous.

G. Streak - color of the mineral when it is powdered - The streak helps eliminate surface effects
such as weathering. A white unglazed porcelain plate is used to powder the mineral.

H. Other Properties - magnetism (magnetite), taste (halite), and fluorescence (some fluorite).

2.4. Rock-forming Minerals

While rocks consist of aggregates of minerals, minerals themselves are made up of one or a
number of chemical elements with a definite chemical composition. Minerals cannot be broken
down into smaller units with different chemical compositions in the way that rocks can. More than
two thousand three hundred different types of minerals have been identified. Luckily many are rare
and the common rocks are made up of a relatively small number of minerals.

There are over 3,500 known minerals, with several new ones described each year; however, only a
small number of these are abundant. Minerals are grouped according to the anion or anion complex
that they contain. Example - silicates (SiO4)-4, carbonates (CO3)-2, sulfides (S), oxides (O-2), and
halides (Cl-1 or F-2). The minerals in each group often display similar properties and are commonly
found together due to their similar chemical composition.

A. Silicates - minerals whose crystalline structure contains the SiO4 tetrahedra - The silica
tetrahedral is the basic building block of all silicate minerals. Silica and oxygen make up about 74%
of the earth's crust. Silica (+4) bonds with four oxygen (-2) such that there is a residual -4 charge.
Other cations (like Ca, Na, Mg, and Fe) either link the tetrahedra together or are incorporated in the
tetrahedral structure, determining the mineral form.

Ferromagnesian Silicates - silicates with iron and/or magnesium in their structure. Most
ferromagnesium minerals are dark-colored and denser than the non-ferromagnesian silicates.
1. Olivine – a solid solution series - MgSiO4-FeSiO4 (single tetrahedra silicates which show a
continuous range in ionic substitution). Olivine is a high temperature mineral that lacks cleavage and
has a greenish colored, glassy luster, and conchoidal fracture. *It is a major component of the mantle
that is common in Fe- and Mg-rich igneous rocks.

2. Pyroxenes - solid solution series with 3 major end members: MgSiO3-FeSiO3 -CaSiO3. These are
single chain silicates. Pyroxenes are dark-colored high- temperature minerals with two well-
developed cleavage planes at about 90o to each other. The cleavage is along the bonds that join the
silica chains. Pyroxenes are abundant in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

3. Amphiboles - complex double-chain silicates which include several different solid solution series
- Hornblende is the most common amphibole. Amphiboles are dark-colored minerals that have two
well-developed cleavage planes at 56o and 124o to each other. They are common in igneous and
metamorphic rocks.

4. Garnet - series of single-tetrahedra silicates which characteristically occur in well-formed near-

spherical, twelve-sided crystals - Garnets show extensive variation in color. They are very hard (7-
7.5), lack cleavage, translucent to transparent and have a vitreous luster. They are most common in
metamorphic rocks.

5. Biotite - iron-rich member of the micas (sheet silicates). Weak Van der Waal's bonds between
sheets results in perfect cleavage in one direction. Biotite is a dark-colored mineral with a vitreous
luster. It is common in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Non-ferromagnesian Silicates - silicate minerals without substantial Fe and Mg in their crystalline

structure. These are generally lighter-colored than the ferromagnesian silicates.

a. Plagioclase Feldspars - solid solution series between anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) and albite
(NaAlSi3O8). These are light-colored, framework silicates which have two directions of cleavage at
about 90o. The Na-rich albite is generally white, whereas the Ca-rich varieties are often blue-gray. All
plagioclases are characterized by fine, parallel lines along the cleavage planes (striations). Plagioclase
feldspars are one of the most abundant minerals found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

b. Potassium Feldspars - solid solution series between albite (NaAlSi3O8) and orthoclase
(KAlSi3O8). The K-feldspars are also 3-dimensional framework silicates which display 2 directions of
cleavage at about 90o. The pink color of orthoclase is diagnostic. Potassium feldspars are common in
igneous and metamorphic rock types.

c. Quartz - a three-dimensional silicate (SiO2) of almost pure silica and oxygen - It is one of the
most common minerals in the earth's crust. There is no residual charge in the silica tetrahedra
because all of the oxygen is shared by two silica atoms. This results in a very resistant mineral which
often survives after all the other components of the rock break down forming river and beach sand.
Quartz displays conchoidal fracture, hardness of 7, and a glassy luster. Color is highly variable.

d. Muscovite - white mica (sheet silicate) with the same characteristics as biotite, but with a white to
silver color and transparent to translucent nature. Muscovite is common in igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
B. Carbonates - minerals which contain the carbonate (CO3)-2 anion complex.

Calcite - CaCO3 - calcium carbonate which occurs as thick masses of limestone, chalk and marble.
It is relatively soft (3), has perfect rhombohedral cleavage (75o), and reacts with HCL.

2HCl + CaCO3 2 + H2O + Cl -1+ Ca+2

Calcite is commonly precipitated from concentrated solutions or extracted from sea water by marine
organisms. (Coral reefs and muds of the Keys and south Florida).

C. Sulfides - minerals which contain the sulfur anion (S).

1. Galena - PBs - lead sulfide which has a metallic luster, perfect cubic cleavage, and a high specific
gravity (7.5). It is the most important source of lead.

2. Pyrite - Fe2S - iron sulfide which is a yellow, metallic mineral which has a hardness of 6-6.5 and
lacks cleavage. It has a greenish-black streak. It is an important source of sulfur.

D. Oxides - minerals which contain oxygen anions (O).

1. Hematite - Fe2O3 - iron oxide which is commonly dark red to steel blue-black - It gives a deep
red streak lacks cleavage and has a moderately high specific gravity (5-6.5). Hematite is mined for its
iron content.

2. Limonite - Fe2O3.H2O - a yellowish-brown, hydrous iron oxide which usually forms by the
weathering of iron minerals - It is characterized by a yellow streak, absence of cleavage and a dull
rusted metallic texture. It is also mined for iron.

E. Halides - minerals which contain Cl, F or any of the other halogen elements as anions.

1. Halite - NaCl - sodium chloride characterized by cubic cleavage, clear or transparent nature, salty
taste, and a resinous luster. It forms by the precipitation from sea water.

2. Fluorite - CaF2 - calcium fluoride which has good cleavage in four directions, variable color,
hardness of 4 and a specific gravity of 3.

F. Others - Native elements ((Au, Ag, Cu, C), sulfates (CaSO4) anhydrite and CaSO4.2H2O gypsum),
and clay minerals (kaolinite)

V. Uses of Minerals -

A. Economic Minerals - minerals with a commercial value

Ore - a mineral or aggregate of minerals that is economically minable. (Varies according to demand)

1. Precious Metals - These include native metals (gold, silver, copper) that occur in pure deposits
and also metal-bearing minerals such as galena (lead) and hematite, limonite, magnetite (iron). Many
of these are Strategic Minerals, minerals that are critical to our national defense. We currently
import >50% of the top 13 strategic minerals such as Cobaltite and chromite.

2. Nonmetallic Ores - These include all nonmetallic minerals that are used most commonly for
industrial or constructional purposes. Examples include halite (food preparation), kaolinite
(ceramics), calcite (concrete, fertilizer), gypsum (wall board), quartz (glass, concrete), and fluorite
(iron smelting).

B. Gemstones - precious or semi-precious stones that are cut and polished for ornamental
purposes. They are characterized by high hardness, unusual color, brilliant luster, and rare
occurrence.

1. Value - based on quality and size - The quality is determined by the number and type of
impurities and umperfections (fractures, discoloration). The size is measured in the following units:

Carat - a fifth of a gram

Point - a hundredth of a carat

(Note: karat is a measure of the proportion of gold mixed in a gold/alloy mixture)

2. Common Examples

Diamond (hardness = 10), Corundum (hardness = 9) includes ruby (red) and sapphire (blue),
Garnet (hardness = 7), Topaz (hardness = 8), Quartz (hardness = 7) includes amethyst, citrine,
tiger's eye.

2.5. Clay minerals

Clay minerals are hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, sometimes with variable amounts of iron,
magnesium, alkali metals, alkaline earths, and other cations. Clays have structures similar to the
micas and therefore form flat hexagonal sheets. Clay minerals are common weathering products
(including weathering of feldspar) and low temperature hydrothermal alteration products. Clay
minerals are very common in fine grained sedimentary rocks such as shale, mudstone, and siltstone
and in fine grained metamorphic slate and phyllite.

Clays are ultrafine-grained (normally considered to be less than 2 micrometers in size on standard
particle size classifications) and so require special analytical techniques. Standards include x-ray
diffraction, electron diffraction methods, various spectroscopic methods such as Mössbauer
spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, and SEM-EDS or automated mineralogy solutions. These
methods can be augment polarized light microscopy, a traditional technique establishing
fundamental occurrences or petrologic relationships.

Clays are commonly referred to as 1:1 or 2:1. Clays are fundamentally built of tetrahedral sheets and
octahedral sheets, as described in the structure section below. A 1:1 clay would consist of one
tetrahedral sheet and one octahedral sheet, and examples would be kaolinite and serpentine. A 2:1
clay consists of an octahedral sheet sandwiched between two tetrahedral sheets, and examples are
illite, smectite, attapulgite, and chlorite (although chlorite has an external octahedral sheet often
referred to as "brucite").

Clay minerals include the following groups:

 Kaolin group which includes the minerals kaolinite, dickite, halloysite, and nacrite
(polymorphs of Al2Si2O5(OH)4).
o Some sources include the kaolinite-serpentine group due to structural similarities
(Bailey 1980).
 Smectite group which includes dioctahedral smectites such as montmorillonite and
nontronite and trioctahedral smectites for example saponite.
 Illite group which includes the clay-micas. Illite is the only common mineral.
 Chlorite group includes a wide variety of similar minerals with considerable chemical
variation.
 Other 2:1 clay types exist such as sepiolite or attapulgite, clays with long water channels
internal to their structure.

Structure of clay minerals

Like all phyllosilicates, clay minerals are characterized by two-dimensional sheets of corner sharing
SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedra. These tetrahedral sheets have the chemical composition (Al, Si)3O4, and
each tetrahedron shares 3 of its vertex oxygen atoms with other tetrahedra forming a hexagonal
array in two-dimensions. The fourth vertex is not shared with another tetrahedron and all of the
tetrahedra "point" in the same direction; i.e. all of the unshared vertices are on the same side of the
sheet.

In clays the tetrahedral sheets are always bonded to octahedral sheets formed from small cations,
such as aluminium or magnesium, coordinated by six oxygen atoms. The unshared vertex from the
tetrahedral sheet also form part of one side of the octahedral sheet but an additional oxygen atom is
located above the gap in the tetrahedral sheet at the center of the six tetrahedra. This oxygen atom is
bonded to a hydrogen atom forming an OH group in the clay structure. Clays can be categorized
depending on the way that tetrahedral and octahedral sheets are packaged into layers. If there is only
one tetrahedral and one octahedral group in each layer the clay is known as a 1:1 clay. The
alternative, known as a 2:1 clay, has two tetrahedral sheets with the unshared vertex of each sheet
pointing towards each other and forming each side of the octahedral sheet.

Figure: structure of clay minerals-montmorillonite and kaolinite