OCEANOGRAPHY

Q. What is ocean ranching? How are aqua- cowboys related to such activities?
Ans. Ocean ranching is a type of fish farming in which juvenile fish are released into the ocean to grow
unprotected and unassisted to be subsequently harvested.
❖ Ocean ranching involves the release of hatchery- raised or captive-bred organisms into the ocean On
the other hand, in traditional fisheries, wild stocks are exploited directly from their natural habitats.
Characteristics
❖ Sea ranching involves introducing juveniles into the natural environment. Juveniles are placed on the
sea bed, usually in the form of slurry, by a length of pipe or by hand.
❖ The environment provides the animals with everything they need, so no additional feed is required.
Suitable Species for Sea Ranching
❖ Sea ranching of sea cucumbers (beche de mer) and scallops, where hatchery-produced juveniles are
placed on the sea bed and allowed to grow to marketable size, is being trialed in the Hervey Bay region.
❖ Scallops are normally grown in deep water and harvested using trawl boats.
❖ Sea cucumbers are normally harvested by hand, either by diving or hand-harvesting at low tide in
shallow water.
Aqua-Cowboys
❖ Aqua-cowboys, a colloquial term, refers to individuals or organizations involved in ocean ranching and
related activities, particularly in the commercial sector.
❖ These aqua-cowboys play a crucial role in activities like capturing, raising, and releasing aquatic
species, employing techniques that mirror aspects of traditional cattle ranching but are adapted to the
marine environment.
❖ Their efforts contribute to sustainable fisheries, conservation, and the restoration of marine ecosystems
Their responsibilities include:
❖ Fishing and Harvesting: Aqua-cowboys may be involved in capturing mature fish from the wild or
catching the ocean-ranched fish once they reach marketable size.
❖ Transport and Release: They transport juvenile fish from hatcheries to release sites, handling logistics,
and ensuring safe and efficient transport.
❖ Net Pen Farming: In some cases, aqua-cowboys are engaged in net pen farming, where juvenile fish
are raised to maturity in enclosed offshore pens, facilitating easier harvest.

Q. How are ocean currents generated? Discuss their effects on coastal climates with special
reference to the Pacific Ocean.
Ans. Ocean water is constantly moving, and not only in the form of waves and tides. Ocean currents flow like
vast rivers, sweeping along predictable paths.
❖ Some ocean currents flow at the surface; others flow deep within water. Some currents flow for short
distances; others cross entire ocean basins and even circle the globe.
❖ Ocean currents can be caused by wind, density differences in water masses caused by temperature and
salinity variations, gravity, and events such as earthquakes or storms.
Generation of Ocean Currents
❖ Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:
i. Primary Forces
❖ Heating by Solar Energy: Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand. That is why, near the
equator the ocean water is higher in level than in the middle latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient
and water tends to flow down the slope.
❖ Coriolis Force: The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

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❖ Wind: Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between the wind
and the water surface affects the movement of the water body in its course.
❖ Gravity: Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation.
II. Secondary forces
❖ Differences in Water Density; It affects vertical mobility of ocean currents. Denser water tends to
sink, while relatively lighter water tends to rise.
❖ Temperature of Water: Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the poles sinks and
slowly moves towards the equator.
Currents of the Pacific Ocean
❖ The Pacific Ocean extends from the Arctic to the Antarctic from north to south, Asia, and Australia in
the west, and the Americas in the east are the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean. Twice the size of the
Atlantic Ocean, it contains 46 percent of the Earth's water surface area.
❖ The Equator acts as a place of division between the North Pacific Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean.
❖ The surface area of the Pacific Ocean is roughly 63.8 to 70 million square miles. There is a mean depth
of 14,040 feet in the Pacific Ocean.
Effects on Coastal Climates Pacific Ocean
❖ Climatic Regulation: Ocean currents, particularly in the Pacific Ocean, have a profound influence on
coastal climates. The California Current, for instance, brings cold water down the west coast of North
America, leading to a cool, temperate climate in California.
❖ Kuroshio Current carries warm subtropical current to Japan's coast bringing a hot and humid climate
and heavy rainfall.
❖ North Pacific Current and relative moderate weather of Alaska Northwestern Canada. It reduces the
impact of Alaska's current and California's current and comparative warm temp in this region.
❖ Cold Kurile Current and cold condition of northern japan, Responsible for heavy snowfall in
Hokkaido region, Japan
❖ El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSOJ: The Pacific Ocean is known for its El Niño and La Niña
phenomena, which are caused by changes in ocean II temperature and currents.
• El Niño brings warmer waters and can lead to increased rainfall and flooding in some regions, while La
Niña is associated with cooler waters and can lead to droughts and colder temperatures.
❖ Upwelling: Ocean currents can result in coastal upwelling, where cold, nutrient-rich waters rise to the
surface.
• This phenomenon enhances marine productivity and supports vibrant ecosystems. For example, the
Humboldt Current along the west coast of South America sustains rich fisheries due to coastal
upwelling.

Q. Give an account of marine resources and their economic significance. How has marine
pollution affected such resources?
Ans. Marine resources are physical and biological entities that are found in seas and oceans that are beneficial
to man. They include fish, coral reefs and crabs, fungi, etc.
❖ Resources like fish, oil, and sand all have monetary value. Resources with intrinsic value benefit society
in their natural state.
❖ For example, marine bacteria and photosynthetic algae consume carbon dioxide and produce oxygen,
which is vital for supporting life and moderating the climate. They benefit society without any human
intervention
Broad Classification of Marine Resources
❖ i. Biotic Resources: The oceans' biological resources include fish, crabs, mollusks, coral, reptiles, and
mammals, among others.
• Planktons: Zooplanktons and phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that float to the surface of the
water. The microscopic foraminifera, radiolarians, diatoms, coccolithophores, dinoflagellates, and
larvae of several marine animals, such as fish, crabs, sea stars, etc., are a few examples of planktons.
• Nekton: The animals that are actively moving in the water are considered nekton. Examples include
invertebrates like shrimp and vertebrates like fish, whales, turtles, and sharks.

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• Benthos: The organisms that make up the benthos are those that are biologically connected to the ocean
floor. Echinoderms, crustaceans, mollusks, poriferans, and annelids make up the majority of the
benthos.
❖ ii. Abiotic Resources: Abiotic resources of the ocean refer to non-living natural resources that can be
found within the marine environment.
• They are broadly classified as mineral resources and energy resources.
❖ III. Mineral Resources: Certain minerals are present in small quantities within seawater itself and can
be extracted using specialized processes.
• Continental Shelf and Slope Deposits: These deposits are found on the shallow seabed regions,
primarily on the continental shelves and slopes. For example, Diamond, Fisheries Sector, Pearls,
Monazite sand, a source of thorium, found off the Kerala coast.
• Sediments on the Deep Ocean Floor: Nodules of manganese contain a variety of minerals, including
lead, zinc, nickel, copper, cobalt, and copper.
Economic Significance of Marine Resources
❖ Fishing: Over 3 billion people depend on marine and coastal resources for their livelihoods. Fish
provide 4.3 billion people with at least 15% of their intake of animal protein.
❖ Dissolved Salts: Nearly 85% of dissolved salts are composed of sodium and chlorine. In India Gujarat
alone produces 50% of total production in India.
❖ Marine Farming Feeding marine animals additional nutrients and selling them in the market - for
example-oyster farming, mussels, scallops, shrimp. carp, trout, and Asian milkfish.
❖ Manufactured Water: Desalination is critical to growth and sustainability in countries in the Middle
East and much of the technology was developed here.
❖ Minerals: Monazite ore contains uranium, and thorium-which are very important for space, nuclear
weapons, and nuclear power plant technology. India is the largest producer of monazite in the world.
Cobalt is used in military aircraft.
❖ Tidal Energy: It is more efficient than wind or solar energy due to its relative density and produces no
greenhouse gasses or other waste, making it an attractive renewable energy source to pursue.
❖ Pharmacology: Marine pharmacologists investigate the physiology, physical, and chemical properties
of marine organisms. For example, shark oil, and cod liver oil are used as energy tonics.
Environment: Oceans capture and store about 30% of carbon dioxide produced by humans.
• Mangroves and coral reefs offer shoreline protection. Global coral reefs protect around 150,000 km of
shoreline in more than 100 countries and territories,
• Marine phytoplankton produces 50% of oxygen on Earth.
Marine Pollution's Impact on Resources
❖ Oil Spills: Ships are major contributors to ocean pollution, especially when crude oil spills occur. Crude
oil lasts for years in the ocean and is difficult to clean up. Oil spills, for instance, will ensnare and
suffocate marine animals by permeating their gills,
❖ Littering: Atmospheric pollution a type of ocean pollution where objects are carried by the wind to the
ocean is often caused by littering. It includes single-use plastics (such as plastic bags) and styrofoam
containers which can take hundreds of years to biodegrade
❖ Ocean Mining: Deep-sea ocean mining causes ocean pollution and ecosystem disruption at the lowest
levels of the ocean. Drilling for substances such as cobalt, zinc, silver, gold and copper creates harmful
sulfide deposits deep in the ocean.
❖ Coral Reefs: Pollution, along with rising sea temperatures, is contributing to the decline of coral reefs.
These ecosystems are essential for fisheries. tourism, and shoreline protection.
❖ Ocean Acidification: Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, partially absorbed by the
oceans, are causing ocean acidification. This has detrimental effects on marine organisms with calcium
carbonate shells or skeletons, such as oysters and corals, affecting aquaculture and tourism
Marine resources are economically significant, but their health and sustainability are threatened by
pollution.

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Q. When corals are affected by stress it causes them to turn completely white. Explain the reasons
of such an occurrence. (CSE 2022)
Ans. Coral polyps are short-lived microscopic organisms, which live in colonies. They flourish in shallow,
mud-free and warm waters. They secrete calcium carbonate.
The coral secretion and their skeletons from coral deposited in the form of reefs.
They are mainly of three kinds
• Barrier reef,
• Fringing reef, and
• Atolls.
The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is a good example of the first kind of coral reefs. Atolls are circular or
horse shoe-shaped coral reefs.
Coral Bleaching
When water is too warm, corals will expel the algae (zooxanthellae) living in their tissues causing the coral to
turn completely white. This is called coral bleaching. When a coral bleaches, it is not dead. Corals can survive
a bleaching event, but they are under more stress and are subject to mortality.
In 2005, the U.S. lost half of its coral reefs in the Caribbean in one year due to a massive bleaching event. The
warm waters centered on the northern Antilles near the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico expanded southward.
In January 2010, cold water temperatures in the Florida Keys caused a coral bleaching event that resulted in
some coral death. In 1998 when the El Niño weather pattern caused sea surfaces in the Pacific Ocean to heat
up: this event caused 8% of the world's coral to die. Second Mass Bleaching took place in 2002.
In the past decade, however, mass bleaching occurrences have become more closely spaced in time, with the
longest and most damaging bleaching event taking place from 2014 to 2017.
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), which is supported by the United Nations, showed that
14% of the world's coral on reefs had been lost between 2009 and 2018.
Causes
• Rise in Sea Temperature: Most coral species live in waters close to the warmest temperature they can
tolerate i.e., a slight increase in ocean temperature can harm corals. El Nino elevates the sea temperature
and destroys coral reefs.
• Ocean Acidification: Due to rise in carbon dioxide levels, oceans absorb more carbon dioxide. This
increases the acidity of ocean water and inhibits the coral's ability to create calcareous skeletons, which
is essential for their survival.
• Solar Radiation and Ultraviolet Radiation: Changes in tropical weather patterns result in less cloud
cover and more radiations which induce coral bleaching.
• Infectious Diseases: Penetration of bacterium like vibrio shiloi inhibits photosynthesis of
zooxanthellae. These bacteria become more potent with elevated sea temperatures.
• Chemical Pollution: Increased nutrient concentrations affect corals by promoting phytoplankton
growth, which in turn supports increased numbers of organisms that compete with coral for space.
• Increased Sedimentation: Land clearing and coastal construction result in high rates of erosion and a
higher density of suspended silt particles which can
▪ smother corals when particles settle out (sedimentation),
▪ reduce light availability (turbidity) and
▪ potentially reduce coral photosynthesis and growth.
• Human Induced Threats: Over-fishing, pollution from agricultural and industrial runoff, coral mining,
development of industrial areas near coral ecosystems also adversely impact corals.

Q. What is the relationship between ocean currents and global surface wind systems?
Explain with examples how does the gyre in the Northern Hemisphere differ from the one in the
Southern Hemisphere. (CSE2022)
Ans. Ocean currents are the continuous, predictable, directional movement of seawater driven by gravity,
surface wind, Coriolis Effect, and water density.
Ocean water moves in two directions: horizontally and vertically. Horizontal movements are referred to as
currents, while vertical changes are called up wellings or down wellings. Ocean currents play an important role
in controlling the climate.

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Relation between Ocean Current and Global Surface Wind
Major surface ocean currents in the open ocean, however, are set in motion by the wind, which drags on the
surface of the water as it blows. The water starts flowing in the same direction as the wind.
But currents do not simply track the wind. Other things, including the shape of the coastline and the seafloor,
and most importantly the rotation of the Earth, influence the path of surface currents.
In the Northern Hemisphere, for example, predictable winds called Trade Winds blow from east to west just
above the Equator. The winds pull surface water with them, creating currents. As these currents flow westward,
the Coriolis effect-a force that results from the rotation of the Earth-deflects them.
The currents then bend to the right, heading north. At about 30 degrees north latitude, a different set of winds,
the westerlies, push the currents back to the east, producing a closed clockwise loop or gyre.
The same thing happens below the equator, in the Southern Hemisphere, except that here the Coriolis effect
bends surface currents to the left, producing a counter-clockwise loop.
Examples
Large rotating currents that start near the Equate are called subtropical gyres. There are five main gyres:
• the North and South Pacific Subtropical Gyres,
• the North and South Atlantic Subtropical Gyres, and
• The Indian Ocean Subtropical Gyre.
The North Atlantic gyre is formed by the North Equatorial Current flowing into the Gulf Stream along the east
coast of the United States. The Gulf Stream merges into the North Atlantic Current to move water towards
Europe, which then becomes the Canary Current as it moves south to join the North Equatorial Current.
The South Atlantic gyre is composed of the South Equatorial Current, the Brazil Current, the ACC, and the
Benguela Current. South Atlantic gyre rotates counter clockwise while north Atlantic gyre rotates clockwise.
Thus, In the Northern Hemisphere the gyres rotate to the right (clockwise), while in the Southern Hemisphere
the gyres rotate to the left (counterclockwise).
These surface currents play an important role in moderating climate by transferring heat from the equator
towards the poles. Subtropical gyres are also responsible for concentrating plastic trash in certain areas of the
ocean.
Thus, apart from other factors global wind system paly important role oceanic surface circulation.

Q. Maritime security is being neglected. Indicate the major challenges and suggest solutions in
the context of Law of the Sea. (CSE 2021)
Ans: Maritime security is a general term which refers with respect to all types of maritime challenges.
Some important Maritime challenges are as follows:
1. Freedom of navigation, recognized as a fundamental right under UNCLOS, has come increasingly under
threat.
2. Piracy and armed robbery;
3. terrorism;
4. drug trafficking and trafficking in nuclear materials and firearms;
5. human trafficking and the smuggling of migrants;
6. illegal activities in the fisheries sector;
7. waste trafficking,
8. intentional and unlawful damage to the marine environment.
All are acute challenges to global efforts to maintain international peace and security, and to keep the world's
oceans accessible and safe for seafarers and for shipping.
After globalization and liberalization of economies, various cases of maritime threat noticed in World Ocean.
For example Piracy has been frequently observed in Gulf of Aden, Indian Ocean, Somali coast, bay of Bengal,
Andaman sea etc.
Chinese disruption in South China Sea has challenged freedom of navigation. There are instance where
international water used by terrorist to execute their operation like 2008 Mumbai attack. Illegal migration by
taking route of sea is prevalent along Syrian border where they are crossing Mediterranean Sea to reach Europe.
Transnational organized crime like drug trafficking, human trafficking, illicit trafficking in firearms, etc. are
prevalent in Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea.
Environmental degradation, rise in sea level, ocean pollution are other challenges ocean water are facing today.

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UNCLOS lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order to address challenges and dispute in the world's
oceans and seas. The 1982 convention was signed by 117 states and it establishes rules governing all uses of
the ocean and its resources. It describes right of the coastal state with respect to territorial waters and exclusive
economic zones.
It also provides laws regarding piracy, environment pollution, freedom of navigation etc.
Some of the key points are as follows:
Rights of Coastal States
1. Coastal States exercise sovereignty over their territorial sea which they have the right to establish its breadth
up to a limit not to exceed 12 nautical miles; foreign vessels are allowed "innocent passage" through those
waters;
2. Ships and aircraft of all countries are allowed "transit passage" through straits used for international
navigation; States bordering the straits can regulate navigational and other aspects of passage;
3. Coastal States have sovereign rights in a 200- nautical mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ) with respect to
natural resources and certain economic activities, and exercise jurisdiction over marine science research and
environmental protection;
4. All other States have freedom of navigation and overflight in the EEZ, as well as freedom to lay submarine
cables and pipelines;
5. Land-locked and geographically disadvantaged States have the right to participate on an equitable basis in
exploitation of an appropriate part of the surplus of the living resources of the EEZ's of coastal States of the
same region or sub-region; highly migratory species of fish and marine mammals are accorded special
protection;
6. Coastal States have sovereign rights over the continental shelf (the national area of the seabed) for exploring
and exploiting it; the shelf can extend at least 200 nautical miles from the shore, and more under specified
circumstances;
7. Coastal States share with the international community part of the revenue derived from exploiting resources
from any part of their shelf beyond 200 miles;
8. The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf shall make recommendations to States on the shelf's
outer boundaries when it extends beyond 200 miles;
Freedom of Navigation
9. All States enjoy the traditional freedoms of navigation, overflight, scientific research and fishing on the high
seas; they are obliged to adopt, or cooperate with other States in adopting, measures to manage and conserve
living resources;
Islands
10. The limits of the territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone and continental shelf of islands are determined
in accordance with rules applicable to land territory, but rocks which could not sustain human habitation or
economic life of their own would have no economic zone or continental shelf;
Marine Pollution
11. States are bound to prevent and control marine pollution and are liable for damage caused by violation of
their international obligations to combat such pollution.

Q. Give a detailed account of bottom topography of the Pacific Ocean. (CSE 2021)
Ans: The ocean waters similar to continents constitutes wide variety of landforms such as mountains, basins,
plateaus, ridges, canyons and trenches etc. These relief features found on the ocean floor are called submarine
relief.
The Ocean basins are broadly divided into four major sub-divisions.
i) Continental shelf;
ii) Continental slope;
iii) Abyssal plains and
iv) The ocean deeps.
However, relief features found in the ocean varies from ocean to ocean. For instance The Pacific Ocean does
not have central or mid- oceanic ridge like the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans, albeit there are a few scattered
ridges having local importance.

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The East Pacific Rise or Ridge known as Albatross Plateau is 1600 km wide and it extends from north of New
Zealand to the Californian coast.
Pacific Ocean
It is the largest Ocean basin covering almost one third of the total surface area of earth. It extends from Bering
Strait in the North to Cape Adare in the South. It is triangular in shape with its apex at Bering Strait. In South
it opens up widely it into Antarctic Ocean, whereas in the north it is connected to Arctic Ocean only through
Bering Strait.
Bottom Topography of the Pacific
The topography of the Pacific Ocean varies more drastically near large landmasses and islands. Some coastlines
along the Pacific are rugged and have high cliffs and nearby mountain ranges such as the west coast of the
United States. Other coastlines have more gradual gently sloping coastlines.
Some areas, such as the coast of Chile, have deep, quickly dropping trenches near the coasts while other are
gradual.
• Continental Shelves of Pacific Ocean or not Very extensive due to the chain of fold mountains running
along the coast. But in certain regions like eastern coast of Australia or Asia, it is wide on which a
number of islands like Japan Philippines etc. as well as marginal seas like yellow sea, South China Sea
etc. are located.
• Deep Trenches the Most striking feature of Pacific Ocean is extensive deeps and trenches. On the eastern
margin, Aleutian Trench. Atacama Trench (Peru-Chile Trench) is important. On the other hand, large
number of trenches is found along the Western margins which include Kuril Trench, Japan Trench,
Mindanao Trench, Mariana Trench, Tonga Trench, Kermadec Trench etc.
• Mid Oceanic Ridge: Unlike Atlantic Ocean or Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean does not have any Central
ridge system. A major ridge system extends from coast of California up to New Zealand. The
northernmost part is known as Coco ridge/Albatross plateau which runs southwards. bifurcating into
two parts at around two degrees South latitude. The narrow Eastern part along the Chile coast is known
as Juan Fernandez ridge. whereas the western part forms wide plateau known as south east Pacific
plateau. Further south, it again bifurcates with the Eastern part forming Chile rise and western part
moving southwards as Pacific and Antarctic ridge.
• Islands: Pacific Ocean has a large number of islands (more than 20000), out of which larger islands
have Continental origin, whereas smaller Island groups have volcanic origin. the major islands nearly
continuous chain of volcanoes surrounds the Pacific Ocean. The chain passes along the west coast of
North and South America, from the Aleutian Islands to the south of Japan, from Indonesia to the Tonga
Islands, and to New Zealand.
• Volcanoes: Circum-Pacific chain of volcanoes (often called the Ring of Fire) and the mountain ranges
associated with it owe their formation to the repeated subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath the
continents and the islands that surround the Pacific Ocean. Differences among the various segments of
the Circum-Pacific chain arise from differences in the histories of subduction of the different plates.

Q. Discuss the hazards associated with the rise of sea-surface temperature. (CSE 2021)
Ans: Sea surface temperature refers to temperature of the water at the ocean surface.
The surface temperature of the world's oceans is not constant. However, it varies latitudinally or diurnally. For
instance, warmest waters generally found near the equator and the coldest waters in the Arctic and Antarctic
regions.
This variation in sea surface temperature leads to oceanic circulation which transports heat from equator to
polar region.
Besides this sea surface temperature also changes due to other factors oceanic acidification, pollution, discharge
of industrial and municipal waste etc. it has been observed that sea surface temperature increased during the
20th century and continues to rise. From 1901 through 2020, temperature rose at an average rate of 0.14°F per
decade.
Hazards associated with rise of Sea Surface Temperature
• Increasing ocean temperatures affect marine species and ecosystems. Rising temperatures cause coral
bleaching and the loss of breeding grounds for marine fishes and mammals.

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• Rising ocean temperatures affect the benefits humans derive from the ocean threatening food security,
increasing the prevalence of diseases and causing more extreme weather events and the loss of coastal
protection
• Rising temperatures also affect coastal vegetation i.e. Mangroves, which protect coastlines from erosion
and sea-level rise.
• Rising sea temperature also increases sea levels and erosion activities which will particularly affect low-
lying island countries in the Pacific Ocean, destroying housing and infrastructure and forcing people to
relocate.
• The rise in sea surface temperatures can build strong low pressure in ocean which cause more strong
cyclone and hurricanes in near future.
• It will also intensify El Niño events thereby bringing more droughts and floods. This can have
significant socio-economic and health effects in some regions of the world.
• Warming ocean temperatures can increase spread of diseases in marine environment. That has direct
consequences on human habitation living near to coast.
Measures to check Sea Surface Temperature
• Limiting greenhouse gas emissions through technologies and cooperation. It will help to prevent the
massive and irreversible impacts of growing temperatures on ocean ecosystems and their services.
• Protecting marine and coastal ecosystems Well- managed protected areas can help conserve and protect
ecologically and biologically significant marine habitats. This will regulate human activities in these
habitats and prevent environmental degradation.
• Restoring marine and coastal ecosystems Elements of ecosystems that have already experienced damage
can be restored. This can include building artificial structures such as rock pools that act as surrogate
habitats for organisms.
• Improving human adaptation Governments can introduce policies to keep fisheries production within
sustainable limits, for example by setting precautionary catch limits and eliminating subsidies to prevent
overfishing.
• Strengthening scientific research Governments can increase investments in scientific research to
measure and monitor ocean warming and its effects. This will provide more precise data on the scale,
nature and impacts of ocean warming, making it possible to design and implement adequate and
appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies.

Q. Marine resources are economically very significant. Discuss citing suitable examples. (CSE
2020)
Ans: The biotic and abiotic resources found in the oceanic water and bottoms are called marine resources,
which include marine water, inherent energy in the oceanic water, biotic life of marine water, marine deposits
and abiotic elements, biotic and abiotic matter of ocean bottoms, benthic organisms, etc.
Economically Significant Marine Resources
Energy: Harnessing the energy resource such as Tidal energy, Wave energy, etc. can be utilized in
decentralized generation of electricity and can supplement the energy crisis. It can be utilized for creating jobs
and reducing the poverty of littoral states.
• Mineral Resources:
▪ Petroleum, Natural Gas, etc. can be harnessed which can supplement the raw material demand
of industries and countries.
▪ Polymetallic Nodules: Ocean floor has large deposits of Polymetallic nodules. Polymetallic
nodules, also called manganese nodules, are rock concretions formed of concentric layers of iron
and Manganese hydroxides. For example, Ocean has around 8% reserves of Copper.
• Food Resources: These can be harnessed sustainably for the present and future use. For example, Fish
and other biotic resources provide the coastal population food throughout the year.
• Tourism and recreational activities can be expanded which provide coastal area development.
Hence Marine resources are very important for sustainable resource use and it can help to achieve Sustainable
Development Goal targets.

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Q. Discuss its recovery and macroalgal regime shift due to this process. (CSE 2020)
Ans: When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, or nutrients, they expel the
symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely white.
Reasons for Coral Bleaching
• Change in Ocean Temperature: Increasing ocean temperature caused by climate change is the leading
cause of coral bleaching. For example, the Great Barrier Reef has experienced five mass bleaching
events-1998, 2002, 2016, 2017 and 2020-all caused by rising ocean temperatures driven by global
heating.
• Runoff and Pollution: Storm generated precipitation can rapidly dilute ocean water and runoff can
carry pollutants. These can bleach the near shore corals, Overexposure to
• Sunlight: When temperature is high, high solar radiance contribute to bleaching in shallow water corals.
• Extreme Low Tides: These leads to exposure of shallow water corals and their bleaching.
Coral Bleaching Recovery
Reefs that suffer substantial mortality face different challenges than those where the majority of corals manage
to survive the bleaching event.
• Favourable Recruitment Conditions: These include good water quality, open hard substrate for
settlement, presence of coralline algae (provide settlement substrate and chemical cues to facilitate coral
settlement), and healthy herbivore populations.
• Larval Supply: Reefs require a robust supply of larvae from source reefs to recover following a
disturbance event.
• Connectivity: Reefs with high mortality after bleaching depend on connectivity to other sources of live
corals for re-seeding.
• Grazing: If important herbivores are missing, overgrowth by algae can slow reef recovery by taking up
space that would otherwise be available to coral recruits.
Macroalgae and corals compete for the available space in coral reef ecosystem. While herbivorous reef- fish
play a beneficial role in decreasing the growth of macroalgae in coral reef eco-system. Abundance of
macroalgae changes the comm community structure towards macroalgae dominated reef ecosystem. This is
again sinking the spatial presence of Coral reefs and playing greater role in coral bleaching phenomenon. Coral
bleaching disturb the whole coastal ecosystem and create the unhealthy competition among the marine
organism

Q. Explain the currents of the North Atlantic Ocean and their significant role in the climate
Western of Europe. (CSE 2020)
Ans: Ocean currents, abiotic features of the are continuous and directed movements of ocean water. These
currents are on the ocean's surface environment, and in its depths, flowing both locally and globally.
North Atlantic Current, also called North Atlantic Drift, part of a clockwise-setting ocean-current system in the
North Atlantic Ocean, extending from southeast of the Grand Bank, off Newfoundland, Canada, to the
Norwegian Sea, off north-western Europe. It constitutes the north-eastward extension of the Gulf Stream; the
latter issues from the Gulf of Mexico and gradually emerges as the North Atlantic Current in mid-ocean.
The Atlantic Ocean circulation that underpins the Gulf Stream and the weather system that brings warm and
mild weather to Europe. The Gulf Stream is the mest important ocean-current system in the northern
hemisphere, which stretches from Florida to north- western Europe. It incorporates several currents: the Florida
current, the Gulf Stream itself, and an eastern extension, the North Atlantic Drift.
Gulf Stream current and Labrador cold current meet near Cape Hatteras area. It creates a fog like condition
near western coast of Canada and USA.
The relatively warm waters of the North Atlantic Drift are responsible for moderating the climate of Western
Europe, so that winters are less cold than would otherwise be expected at its latitude. Without the warm North
Atlantic Drift, the United Kingdom and other places in Europe would be as cold as Canada, at the Same latitude.
For example, without this steady stream of warmth the British Isles winters are estimated to be more than 5 0C
the bringing the average December temperature in London to about 2°C.
Off the British Isles, North Atlantic Drift splits into two branches, one going south (the Canary Current) and
the other going north along the coast of Western and Northern Europe, where it exerts considerable influence
upon the climate as far as north-western Europe. For example, the Drift is particularly important because it

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keeps many Norwegian ports free of ice throughout the year. All these shows North Atlantic Ocean currents
have greater role in bringing climate change at Western Europe.

Q. How are sandpits and tombolos formed? (CSE-2019)

Ans: Coastal landforms can be either depositional or erosional. Beaches, sandpits and tombolos are examples
of depositional landforms. Cliffs and caves are examples of erosional landforms.
• Sandpits: Sandpits are created by deposition. A spit is an extended stretch of beach material that
projects out to sea and is joined to the mainland at one end. Spits are formed where the prevailing wind
blows at an angle to the coastline, resulting in longshore drift. An example of a spit is Spurn Head -
found along the Holderness Coast in Humberside.
• Longshore drift moves material along the coastline and spit forms when the material is deposited.
• Over time, the spit grows and develops a hook if wind direction changes further out.
• Waves cannot get past a spit, which creates a sheltered area where silt is deposited and mud flats or salt
marshes form.
Tombolos
• A tombolo is a spit connecting an island to the mainland. It is a coastal formation that means, when
translated from Italian, "mound".
• It appears to be a small island that has not fully separated from the mainland. This island-like landform
is actually attached to the coast by thin sandbar or spit.
• Tombolos are sometimes referred to as "tied islands", because it seems to be tethered to the coast.
• These formations can be either solitary or found in clusters, When clustered, the sand bars may form a
lagoon-like enclosure near the coast.
• These types of lagoons are likely to fill with sediment over time.
Formation of Tombolo
• Longshore Drift: Longshore drift occurs as waves push sediment (which may consist of sand, silt, and
clay) towards the coastline at an angle. Instead of landing on the beach, these sediments begin to build
up between the beach and an island, creating the bar mentioned above and effectively "tying" the island
to the mainland.
• This drift is often influenced by the wind direction. When created by Longshore Drift, these formations
are sometimes not considered true tombolo.
• Wave Diffraction and Refraction: A true tombolo is formed by wave diffraction and refraction. Waves
move toward the coastline and are slowed down as they enter the shallower water. They first reach the
islands that are close to the shore. Because these waves are moving at a slower than normal pace, they
move around the island instead of over it. As the water moves more slowly around the island, it picks
up sediment along the way. When the waves meet on the other side of the island (the side facing the
coast), the sediment is deposited. This sediment continues to build up until it creates the sandbar that
connects the island to the beach.
Changing Tombolos
• Because of the unique shape of tombolos, they tend to be more likely to change over time due to
weathering and tides than the regular coastline. Sometimes, the island at the end of the bar, or spit, is
large enough that it supports commercial or residential activity.
• In order to prevent changes to the tombolo, the bar is reinforced with cement roads or parking lots. This
prevents wind and waves from washing away the finer sediment on top of the bar.

Q. How are ocean waves formed? Distinguish between wave of oscillation and wave of
translation. (CSE-2019)
Ans: Ocean waves are important factors in coastal landform development, coastal ecology and environment.
Formation of Ocean Waves
• Waves are created by energy passing through water, causing it to move in a circular motion. However,
water does not actually travel in waves. Waves transmit energy, not water, across the ocean and if not
obstructed by anything, they have the potential to travel a crore .
• Waves are most commonly caused by wind. Wind. driven waves, or surface waves, are created by the
friction between wind and surface water. As wind blows across the surface of the ocean or a lake, the
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continual disturbance creates a wave crest. These types of waves are found globally across the open be
caused by ocean and along the coast
• More potentially hazardous waves can severe weather, like a hurricane. The strong winds and pressure
from this type of severe storm causes storm surge, a series of long waves that are created far from shore
in deeper water and intensify as they move closer to land.
• Other hazardous waves can be caused by underwater disturbances that displace large amounts of water
quickly such as earthquakes, landslides, or volcanic eruptions. These very long waves are called
tsunamis, Storm surge and tsunamis are very destructive when crashing down on the shore. These waves
roll upon the shore like a massive sea level rise and can reach far distances inland.
• The gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon on the Earth also causes waves. These waves are tides or,
in other words, tidal waves. A wave's size depends on wind speed, wind duration, and the area over
which the wind is blowing (the fetch). This variability leads to waves of all shapes and sizes.
• The smallest categories of waves are ripples, growing less than one foot height. The largest waves occur
where there are big expanses of open water that wind can affect.
• Places famous for big waves include Waimea Bay, Hawaii; Jaws, Maui; Mavericks, California;
Mullaghmore Head, Ireland; and Teahupoo, Tahiti. These large wave sites attract surfers, although
occasionally, waves get just too big to surf.
Waves of Oscillation and Waves of Translation
Waves of Oscillation Waves of Translation
Water particles move in Water particles actually Water particles actually move farward.
near-circular orbits which move forward. decrease
in diameter with depth.
Mainly deep water waves. Form at the beach where waves begin to break.
Deep-water waves occur where the water is deeper Waves travelling in water shallower than 1/20 the
than 1/2 the wavelength of the waves. wavelength are considered to be shallow-water waves
and their speed is determined only by water depth.
In deep water the velocity of a wave is a function The shallower the water, the slower the speed.
of wavelength.

Q. Describe the causes and consequences of sea level changes. (CSE-2018)

Ans: There are three main causes of sea-level changes :
• Eustatic sea-level changes are global sea-level changes related either to changes in the volume of
glacial ice on land or to changes in the shape of the sea floor caused by plate tectonic processes. For
example, changes in the rate of mid-ocean spreading will change the shape of the sea floor near the
ridges, and this affects sea level. Example- Pleistocene period 4 glacial and intra-glacial phases of sea
level change.
• Isostatic sea-level changes are local changes caused by subsidence or uplift of the crust related either
to changes in the amount of ice on the land, or to growth or erosion of mountains. Example- There is
evidence of isostatic rebound along the southwest coast of Vancouver Island, where a number of streams
enter the ocean as 5 m high waterfalls.
• Tectonic sea-level changes are local changes caused by tectonic processes. The subduction of the Juan
de Fuca Plate beneath British Columbia is creating tectonic uplift (about 1 mm/year) along the western
edge of Vancouver Island, although much of this uplift is likely to be reversed when the next large
subduction-zone earthquake strikes.
Consequences of Sea level Changes
• Water is increasingly invading coastal areas, causing soil erosion and threatening farmland, housing or
recreation areas.
• On the social aspect, the constant threat of sea level rise menaces hundreds of millions of people living
in coastal communities. If water continues to rise, they will be forced to abandon their homes. (Le.
forced migration from coastal regions).
• The flooding of wetlands and pollution of aquifers also occurs, affecting the flora and fauna of each
place thereby causing the loss of habitat for fish, birds, plants and many other species.
• Rejuvenation of cycle of erosion.

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• Low-lying islands would be swallowed by the oceans, leading to the disappearance of large land areas
and even some countries.

Q. Describe the configuration of the Pacific Ocean floor. (CSE-2017)

Ans. Pacific ocean, the largest ocean of the world having one third area of the globe, extends from east to west
for 16000 Km. Average depth of ocean is 4000m. Johnson has divided the Pacific Ocean into four sub regions:
(1) The North Pacific (2) The Central Pacific (3) The South West Pacific (4) The South East Pacific
A. Pacific Rise: Pacific Ocean doesn't have central or mid oceanic ridge like Atlantic and Indian Oceans, albeit
there are a few scattered ridges having local importance. Example: East Pacific Ridge, Galapagos Ridge, New
Zealand Ridge, etc.
B. Ocean Basins: There are many basins in Pacific Ocean and these basins are separated by ridges and 'rises'.
Few important basins are-
▪ Philippine Basin: located east of Philippines and extending till south of Japan to 50° North latitude.
▪ Fiji Basin: located in the south of Fiji Island between 10 degree North and 32º South latitude.
▪ Peru Basin: located to the west of Peru coast between 5 degree South and 24" South latitude.
C. Ocean Deeps and Trenches: There are many trenches and deeps in Pacific Ocean such as Aleutian Trench,
Japan Trench, etc.

Q. Distinguish between low energy coasts and coral coasts. (CSE-2017)

Ans. Basic differences between low energy coasts and coral coasts are as follows:
Low energy coasts
• Waves are not so powerful (for a significant part of the year)
• The rate of deposition exceeds the rate of erosion
• Characteristic landforms include beaches and spits.
• Examples: Borth Beach and Dawlish barren beach- United Kingdom.
Coral Coasts
• Waves are high compared to low energy coasts.
• Presence of large phytoplankton and zooplanktons
• Rate of deposition does not exceed the rate of erosion.
• Present mostly between tropic of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn.

Q. Discuss impact of ocean currents on the air mass behavior. (CSE-2017)

Ans. An Airmass is a large volume of air that has horizontally uniform properties in terms of temperature to a
lesser extent humidity. Airmasses acquire their properties from spending days to weeks over the same part of
the Earth: say over northern Canada, the North Pole, the tropical Pacific Ocean, etc.
Impact of ocean currents on the air mass behavior.
(1) It will change air mass stability: Saturated air mass will change into unsaturated. Many drier air masses
become unstable after passing over Humid and Warm Ocean current, and cause precipitation on reaching land.
(2) Movement over ocean current changes temperature. Example-If cold air mass is passing through hot ocean
current then Air mass gradually absorb temperature. Air mass of Western Africa (Sahara) gets dry due to
prevailing cold Canary Current.
(3) Formation of fogs due to intermixing of ocean currents and movement of Airmass. Example formation of
fogs at Peru coast.

Q. "The relation between winds and the currents is best seen in the Indian Ocean." Justify. (CSE-
2016)
Ans. The current systems of the Indian Ocean are largely controlled and modified by landmasses and monsoon
winds. Indian Ocean being surrounded by the Indian subcontinent, Africa and Australia, does not present most
favourable conditions for the development of permanent and consistent system of ocean currents. The currents
in the northern Indian Ocean change their flow direction twice a year due to north-east and south- west winds-
and this is comparatively more pronounced in the Indian Ocean when compared to the currents of Atlantic and
Pacific.
Winter Circulation

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Under the influence of prevailing trade winds (easterlies) the north equatorial current and the south equatorial
current start from the south of Indonesian Islands, moving from east to west. This raises the level of Western
Indian Ocean (south east of horn of Africa) by few centimetres. And this creates a counter- equatorial current
which flows between the north and south equatorial currents in the west-east directions.
The north east monsoons drive the water along the coast of Bay of Bengal to circulate in an anti-clockwise
direction. Similarly, the water along the coast of Arabian sea also circulate in an anti-clockwise circulation.
Summer Circulation
In summer, due to the effects of the strong south- west monsoon and the absence of the north-east trade winds,
a strong current flows from west to east, which completely obliterates the north equatorial current. Hence, there
is no counter equatorial current as well. Thus, the correlation of water in the northern part of the ocean is
clockwise during this season.
Unlike the northern Indian Ocean, the general circulation pattern of the southern Indian Ocean is similar to that
of Atlantic and Pacific. It is less marked by the seasonal changes. The southern equatorial current, Madagascar
current, Agulhas current, West wind drift, Australia current and Leeuwin current completes the southern gyre.
The uniqueness of surface ocean currents in the Indian Ocean is the seasonal reversal under the strong influence
of monsoonal winds. Such strong correlation between winds and currents cannot be seen in other oceans. Even
local jet streams play a part (by directing the Somali current).

Q. Discuss Maritime Zones. (CSE-2016)

Ans. Law of the Sea mechanisms, specifically the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS), provide for the demarcation of global oceans and water bodies into several maritime zones.
The maritime zones have been demarcated into various zones on the basis of different purposes such as;
- Sovereignty
- Exploitation of marine resources
- Trade and transport
- Recreation, etc.
The offshore areas of the country have been divided into three zones, viz, Territorial Sea, Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ) and High Sea.
Territorial Sea
The distance of the territorial sea is measured from the baseline (the imaginary line that connects the land
projecting towards the sea) upto 12 nautical miles towards the sea. Further Contiguous Zone is a maritime zone
located beyond the territorial sea over which a coastal state exercises certain exclusive rights. This zone is upto
24 nautical miles from the baseline. The State may, in this zone, exercise its authority and control to prevent
any malicious activity infringing the law of the land.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
The EEZ extends 200 nautical miles from the baseline. The concerned State has exclusive economic rights viz,
to survey, exploit, conserve and manage mineral resources of ocean deposits. Any other country cannot venture
into any economic activity in this region without the permission of the concerned State.
However, this zone is open for laying of cables, navigation of Ships, and flying aeroplanes for other States. It
may be mentioned that similar activities are not permitted in the Territorial Sea.
High Sea
It extends seawards beyond the EEZ and includes the vast expanse of the oceans. All countries have equal rights
of navigation, aviation, fishing, mining, laying submarine cables, etc. Scientific research may also be conducted
by any country in this region.

Q. Describe the characteristics of different types of pelagic deposits. (CSE-2015)

Ans. Pelagic deposits consist of matter derived from algae and are mostly in the from of liquid mud. Pelagic
deposits are oozes generally divided into two groups based on lime and silica content.
In Calcareous ooze, lime content is in abundance.
Therefore, it is highly soluble. Because of high solubility it is seldom found at greater depths. Also, on the basis
of principal organisms, calcareous oozes are further divided into 2 sub types- (a) Pteropode (b) Globigerna
Siliceous ooze-It is named so because silica content dominates in it. Silica is derived from a group of protozoa
or radiolarians and benthic animals mainly sponges. Solubility of this ooze is comparatively less, because of
less amount of calcium carbonate and domination of silica.
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Silicious ooze is found in both warm and cold water at greater depths. Based on the animal/organism they are
also divided into 2 types.
(a) Radiolarian ooze (b) Diatom ooze
The depth at which calcareous ooze disappears almost due to its solubility is known as calcium carbonate
compensation zone.

Q. Give an account of recent observations on coral bleaching with reference to Clive Wilkinson's
Report. (CSE-2014)
Ans: Current status of coral reefs
• Estimates in this report are that 20% of the world's coral reefs have been effectively destroyed and show
no immediate prospects of recovery;
• Approximately 40% of the 16% of the world's reefs that were seriously damaged in 1998 are either
recovering well or have recovered;
• The report predicts that 24% of the world's reefs are under imminent risk of collapse through human
pressures; and a further 26% are under a longer term threat of collapse;
• Coral reefs around the world continue to decline from increasing human pressures; poor land
management practices are releasing more sediment, nutrients and other pollutants that stress reefs; Over
"shing and particularly fishing with destructive methods are: threatening the normal functioning of coral
reef ecosystems; populations of key reef organisms; lowering coral reef productivity; and, along with
pollution, shifting the advantage towards macro-algae by removing compete the corals; these algae
smother and compete the corals:
• Pressure on reefs from coral predators such as the crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) and coral diseases
have not increased recently (sometimes because corals have declined); but severe problems remain on
some reefs. There is evidence that these are exacerbated by human pressures, either by removing the
predators of COTS and/or increasing water temperatures that stress corals, making them more
susceptible to coral diseases;
• Analysis of coral reefs in the wider Caribbean region confirm major reef declines and they do not
resemble the reefs of 30 years ago. Now Coral cover on many Caribbean reefs has declined by up to
80%; however there are some encouraging signs of recovery;
Status of Coral Reefs of the World
• There are few encouraging signs for reefs in the high biodiversity areas of Southeast Asia and the Indian
Ocean, where human pressures continue to increase on coral reef; whereas reefs in the Pacific Ocean
and around Australia remain quite healthy.
Global Threats to Coral Reefs
• Many coral reefs continue to recover after the 1998 El Niño/La Niña global coral bleaching event, with
stronger recovery in well-managed and remote reefs; however, the recovery is not uniform and many
reefs virtually destroyed in 1998 show minimal signs of recovery. This recovery could be reversed if
the predicted increases in ocean temperatures occur as a result of increase increasing global climate
change; Cold
• There has been no recurrence of the major global-scale climate change pressures of 1998; although there
have been some more localised bleaching events in 2000 and 2003 causing damage to reefs;
• The coral bleaching in 1998 was a 1 in a 1000- year event in many regions with no past history of such
damage in official government records or in the memories of traditional cultures of the affected coral
reef countries. Also very old corals around 1000 years old died during 1998. Increasing sea surface
temperatures and CO2 concentrations provide clear evidence of global climate change in the tropics,
and current predictions are that the extreme events of 1998 will become more common in the next 50
years, ie. massive global bleaching mortality will not be a 1/1000 year event in the future, but a regular
event,
• Coral disease and major coral predators like the crown-of-thorn starfish continues to threaten reefs and
evidence points to human disturbance as a contributing and catalytic factor behind these increases.
• There was a major advance in the protection of the Great Barrier Reef with increases in the amount of
no-take areas from 5% to 33%, following a careful analysis using the best available science and

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extensive consultation with major stakeholders, The World Summit on Sustainable Development in
2002 called for the establishment of networks of larger marine protected areas (MPAs) and a major
international effort to reduce losses in biodiversity, including the biodiversity on tropical and cold-water
coral reefs;
• Many coral reef countries lack the resources of trained personnel, equipment and finances to effectively
conserve coral reefs, establish MPAs and enforce regulations;
• This lack of resources is often exacerbated by a poor awareness of the problems facing coral reefs and
their significance in local economies, and inadequate political will to tackle difficult environmental
problems;
• Major international NGOs are combining their expertise and resources to establish networks of MPAs
and improve management capacity. A major focus is on the high biodiversity region of Southeast Asia
and the Western Pacific,
• Some of these NGOs have developed rapid assessment methods to select sites for urgent protection and
also designed tools to assist resource managers to protect reefs from global climate change stresses;

Q. Illustrate the origin and nature of Sargasso Sea and Lagoon. Ans: Origin of Sargasso Sea and
lagoon (CSE-2014)
The Sargasso Sea is a vast patch of ocean named after a genus of free-floating seaweed called Sargassund While
there are many different types of algae found floating in the ocean all around the world, the Sargasso Sea is
unique in that it harbors species of Sargassum that are 'holopelagic this means that the algae not only freely
floats around the ocean, but it reproduces vegetatively on the high seas. Other seaweeds reproduce and begin
life on the floor of the ocean.
Sargassum provides a home to an amazing variety of marine species. Turtles use Sargassum mats as nurseries
where hatchlings have food and shelter. Sargassum also provides essential habitat for shrimp, crab, fish, and
other marine species that have adapted specifically to this floating algae. The Sargasso Sea is a spawning site
for threatened and endangered eels, as well as white marlin, porbeagle shark, and dolphin fish. Humpback
whales annually migrate through the Sargasso Sea. Commercial fish, such as tuna, and birds also migrate
through the Sargasso Sea and depend on it for food.
While all other seas in the world are defined at least in part by land boundaries, the Sargasso Sea is defined
only by ocean currents. It lies within the Northern Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. The Gulf Stream establishes the
Sargasso Sea's western boundary, while the Sea is further defined to the north by the North Atlantic Current,
to the east by the Canary Current, and to the south by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current. Since this area is
defined by boundary currents, its borders are dynamic, correlating roughly with the Azores High Pressure
Center for any particular season. The Sargasso Sea is a strange and a unique creation of the nature. The sea area
which is some 700 miles wide, 2000 miles long and located in the North Atlantic has no shores.
With such ocean currents on all sides, this sea area unlike the harsh cold North Atlantic is strangely warm with
stable weather conditions and with calm and weak winds. Another strange phenomenon which is nowhere seen
in the world is that this vast water area is covered with some dense seaweed which forms a thick mat on the
surface. This free floating golden-brown seaweed is known as Sargassum and therefore the name of the sea.

Q. Differentiate Storm Surges and Seiches. (CSE-2013)

Ans. A storm surge is an offshore rise of water associated with a low pressure weather system, typically tropical
cyclones and strong extratropical cyclones. Storm surges are caused primarily by high winds pushing on the
ocean's surface. The wind causes the water to pile up higher than the ordinary sea level. Low pressure at the
center of a weather system also has a small secondary effect. It is this combined effect of low pressure and
persistent wind over a shallow water body which is the most common cause of storm surge flooding problems
A seiche is a standing wave in an enclosed or partially enclosed body of water. Seiches and seiche- related
phenomena have been observed on lakes, reservoirs, swimming pools, bays, harbours and seas. The key
requirement for formation of a seiche is that the body of water be at least partially bounded, allowing the
formation of the standing wave. Seiches are often imperceptible to the naked eye, and observers in boats on the
surface may not notice that a seiche is occurring due to extremely long wavelengths.
The effect is caused by resonances in a body of water that has been disturbed by one or more factors, most often
meteorological effects (wind and atmospheric pressure variations), seismic activity or by tsunamis. Gravity

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always seeks to restore the horizontal surface of a body of liquid water, as this represents the configuration in
which the water is in hydrostatic equilibrium

Q. 'Atolls present the most challenging explanation in the evolution of coral reefs'. Discuss. (CSE-
2012)
Ans. Coral reefs and atoll have their own significance in the ocean. These are created by piling up of coral
polyps. Coral reefs are formed between 25N to 255 latitude along with island and coast or sea mounts at
appropriate depth. Coral reefs are always found below sea level as corals cannot survive outside water.
Conditions of their formation are following
Corals are mainly found in tropical sea region because high temperature is required for survival
• They are found at low depth as insolation doesn't reach in deep
• Clear water is needed
• Excessive salinity is harmful
• Sea mounts are needed
Horseshoe and ring-shaped coral reef is known as atoll. They are generally located along island or in elliptical
shape over a submerged plateau. They have at least one portion open and have a lagoon.
Atolls are of three types:
1. Atolls having absence of islands and are only arc shaped
2. Atolls having islands
3. Atolls having islands formed by erosion and deposition (initially absent)
Development of coral reefs has been explained by many thinkers such as Darwin, Murray, Daly etc. who
considered atoll as important step in their theory.
Darwin in his Subsidence Theory of Coral Reef Development stated that the land over which reefs are
developed is not stable and subsides continuously.
According to Darwin, fringe reef, barrier reef and atoll are successive evolution of stages coral reef
development.
Initially, corals grow on an ideal surface and rear towards sea which leads to fringe reef development but with
subsidence corals also go in deep. As a result they start growing rapidly upwards and outwards There gathering
food and for survival. This leads to barrier reef development as inner side does not have that grows found a
Further subsidence of land causes submergence of island and atoll is formed.
Darwin provides absence of cliff as evidence for his subsidence theory as cliff is only found on state land.
Murray in his standstill theory gives successive development of fringe, barrier and atoll reef. Daly considered
atoll formation on isolated oceanic plateau and fringe and barrier reef formation on narrow and broad sea
mounts. In nutshell, Darwin, Murray and Daly considered atoll important in their theories of coral reef
development.

Q. Different layers of ocean water above abyssal plain. (CSE-2012)

Ans. Ocean water is layered from ocean basin to surface. This layering is because of difference in density,
salinity, temperature. There are three layers on the basis of density:
1. Layer with minimum density the first layer spreads from 100 to 200 m deep. It is also known as Photic
zone. It has 2% of total ocean volume. This layer has density variation according to weather and region.
2. Layers with sharp density gradient (Pycnocline). this middle layer spans from 300 to 1000m. This has
highest variation in density vertically. It has 18% of total ocean volume.
3. Layer with highest but uniform density - this layer spanning below 1000m has high density water This
has 80% of ocean volume. The water flows from high latitudes to low latitudes due to sinking of water in high
latitudes. This is known as thermohaline circulation.

Q. Examine economic significance of the resources of the continental shelf of the Indian Ocean.
(CSE-2009)
Ans. Indian Ocean is smaller than the Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean and is bounded on all of its sides. There
is wide range of variation in the continental shelves of the Indian Ocean. Quite extensive selves are found along
the eastern coast of Africa, Madagascar, Along the margins of Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal. On an average
the continental selves are very wide in the west where as these are narrow along the coast of Java and Sumatra
and Antarctica.
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Three kinds of resources are being used from continental shelf of Indian Ocean.
(1) Biotic Resources (ii) Mineral Resources (iii) Energy Resources
(1) Biotic Resources-The biotic resources include fish, crustaceans molluscs, sea weeds and other edible form
of marine life. Marine animals provide oil, fur, leather, cattle food, etc. Marine plants and animals are also
being used in curative medicines. Seaweeds derived from continental shelf are used in cooking and textiles.
Among all the biotic resources fish are more important for the people of Indian Ocean region because they are
a rich source of protein and account for more than 10% of the animal protein food. Major varieties of fish
include Tuna, Mackerel, Salmon, Sardine, prawn, etc.
(2) Mineral Resources-The mineral resources derived from the continental shelf of Indian Ocean include both
metallic and non-metallic resources either in the dissolved form or as suspensions. The dissolved salts include
common salt e g sodium chloride, salts of magnesium and bromine. Minerals derived from the shelves include
petroleum, gas, magnesium, sulphur, phosphorite, iron, gold, sulphur, silver, sand, gravel, polymetallic nodules
of copper zinc, etc. Oil and natural gas are the most important of all the mineral resources derived from the
continental shelves of Indian Ocean. They constitute upto 90% of the value of mineral derived from the sea.
(3) Energy Resources-Energy from the continental shelves of Indian Ocean is derived in three ways (a) from
tidal waves (b) energy from temperature difference in surface and sub-surface water. (c) geothermal energy
(1) Energy from Tidal Waves-Tides during rise and fall, of tide release a lot of energy by striking against d
the shore. This piston action can be used to operate a turbine and produce electricity. The potential cl Power
generation from the tidal waves in India has been estimated at 8000 MW, the bulk of which coming from Gulf
of Cambay. Recently a Tida wave plant have been established at Durgaduani in Sundarban of West Bengal.
(Ocean-Thermal Energy).
(ii) Energy from temperature difference in surface and sub-surface water-In tropical oceans like Indian
Ocean, the surface temperature is about 25°C-30°C while the sub surface temperature is 5°C. This vertical
difference of temperature is enough to generate electricity. In India the potential power from ocean thermal
energy is estimated at 50,000 MW. A plant with a capacity of 100 MW is coming soon in Tamil Nadu, India.
(iii) Geothermal Energy-This means tapping heat from fracture zones and active volcanoes on continental
shelves of Indian Ocean. There is immense potential for power generation in coastal areas of Indian Ocean.
Thus, the continental shelves of Indian ocean are economically very significant for people.

Q. Comment on marine heat budget and the oceanic circulation system. (CSE-2009)
Ans: The Sun is the ultimate source of energy on the earth. The oceans are heated through the process of
convection, conduction and radiation. The heat budget of the oceans is the Sum of total incoming energy to the
oceans and its expenditure through the various process of heat related activities. In general the heat budget of
the ocean is balanced one ie. supply of energy is equal to losses of energy
The heat budget of ocean is controlled by the various processes of the ocean water. Such as-
(i) Radiation of the Sun and its absorption from the ocean.
(ii) Convection of heat through the ocean bottom.
(iii) Process of cooling of oceans through the processes of radiation from the surface of the sea, convection and
evaporation from the surface as well.
For the ocean as a whole the heat budget may be expressed as- Qs-Qb-Qh-Qe = 0
Where
Qs= absorption of the radiation from the Sun
Qb = back radiation from the ocean
Qh = convection of sensible heat to the atmosphere
Qe = evaporation and latent heat released by condensation to atmosphere.
The ocean experiences a thermostatic control on climate through the surplus incoming radiation The water
surface of ocean reflects a little amount of radiation while the major part is absorbed in the sea water and given
off to the atmosphere during the period when the air is colder than the sea surface. The heat budget of the ocean
can be understood from the chart given below.
Latitude Direct Solar 0° 30° 60° 90°
Radiation Diffused 202 233 80 39
Radiation 166 99 73 36
Total Heat Gain Effective Back 368 332 153 75
Radiation 118 143 121 137
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Convection 45 35 20 20
Evaporation 164 160 36 0
Total Heat Loss 327 338 1777 157
Gain- loss +41 -6 -24 -82
Heat Budget of the Ocean (gcal/cm²/Day)
From the above data it appears that the heat loss is gradually increasing towards the higher-latitude. This excess
loss of heat in higher latitude is compensated through ocean current and air masses blowing from lower latitude
to higher latitude.

Q. Describe the ideal conditions for coral reef formation and discuss the glacial control theoryx
of coral reef formation. (CSE-2008)
Ans: Coral reefs and atolls are significant submarine features. These are formed due to accumulation and
compaction of skeletons of lime secreting organisms known as coral polyps. They are also called 'the rainforests
of the oceans'.
Conditions required for the growth of the corals:
• Corals are found mainly in the tropical oceans and seas because they require high mean annual
temperature for their survival.
• Corals do not live in deeper water that is not more than 200 to 250 feet below sea level because they die
in waters deeper than 77 metre due to lack of sufficient amount of sunlight and oxygen which are very
much required for the growth of coral polyps.
• There should be clean sediment free water because h muddy or turbid water clogs the mouths of coral
d polyps resulting in their death.
• Though coral polyps require sediment free water is but fresh water is also injurious for the growth of hi
the corals. This is why corals avoid coastal lands and live away from the river mouths.
• for cons contains little amount of calcium carbonate when lime is the important food of the coral polyps
Ocean currents and waves are favourable because they bring the necessary food supply the polyps.
Corals grow in the open seas and oceans but they die in lagoons and small enclosed because of lack of
supplies of food. There should be extensive submarine platform for the formation of the colonies of the
coral polyps. Such platforms should not be more than 50 fathoms below the s level. The polyps start
their colonies from the fire base of hard rock and grow upward until they reach the sea level.
• Human economic activities viz deforestation industrialization, etc causing global warming hay adverse
effects on corals in more susceptible to long their habitats. Corals term climate change. Th Increase in
the temperature causes bleaching in corals where in the corals loose their algae and the become white
in color which leads to death of the corals
• Besides global warming, human activities at the local and regional level such as pollution of the oceanic
waters through excess influx of sediments and nutrients, industrial effluents, urban waste. sewage over
fishing, clearance of maritime forests etc cause fatal diseases to the corals.
There are three prominent types of the coral reefs that is, the fringing reefs, the barrier reefs and the atolls.
These different types exhibit different features and characteristics and owe their origin to different processes.
The corals being a complex phenomenon. have been explained through different theories by different scholars
One of the most important theories among them is the one propounded by Daly. Daly propounded his theory
of coral formation in the year 1915 after he was convinced that the coral reefs were formed after Pleistocene
ice age. According to him, sea level fell by 33 to 38 fathoms due to glaciations during this age. The existing
corals died due to lowering of the temperature of marine water. Wave cut platforms were formed along the
continental coasts and islands due to the abrasion by the sea waves. After the end of the ice age the sea levels
rose again by 33 to 38 fathoms due to the return of the sea water which was imprisoned on the continents in the
form of ice during the ice age.
Thus, the wave cut platforms were submerged under the sea water up to the depth of 33 to 38 fathoms. The
corals which could survive during the glacial period and the new coral polyps began to grow and establish their
colonies on the seaward edges of submerged platforms. Thus, fringing reefs were formed on the narrow wave
cut platforms while barrier reefs were formed on the broad wave eroded platforms.
Atolls were also formed around isolated wave eroded island peaks. Lagoons of uniform depth were formed
between the reefs and the land because of the uniform lowering of the sea levels due to the glaciation during
the Pleistocene ice age.
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EKAM IAS ACADEMY HYDERABAD
The Glacial Control Theory of Daly is criticised on the following grounds:
According to this theory the depth of all lagoons of atolls and barrier reefs should be uniform but actual
observations do not validate this concept.
The coasts might have been cliffed due the wave erosion during the phase of the lowering of the sea levels
during the Pleistocene ice age. Thus, the cliffs formed during the glacial period should also be found now but
they are seldom found. In fact, the coral might have protected the coasts from being cliffed
If all the marine islands were eroded upto 33 to 38 fathoms then, there should not be islands between the coasts
and the coral reefs but numerous such islands are found.

Q. Seafloor spreading theory. (CSE-2008)

Ans: The Seafloor spreading theory was propounded by Prof. Harry Hess and Robert S. Dietz in 1960. It states
that oceanic crust is continuously being renewed resulting in the spreading of ocean in the mid oceanic regions.
Hess postulated that along the mid oceanic regions there are certain elevated hill like features known as mid
oceanic ridges, which are situated on the rising thermal convection currents originating from the mantle. The
hot magma from the Aesthenosphere continuously erupts through these ridges resulting in fractures. This
magma spills in both the direction of the ridges and collides down forming new oceanic crust.
This new crust is added to the trailing edges of the plates and is ultimately destroyed in the oceanic trench and
gets reincorporated in the mantle.
Various evidences found for sea floor spreading include:
• Occurrence of earthquakes along the mid oceanic ridges.
• The thickness of the segments is more at the edges of the oceans than at the ridges.
• Ocean floors are much older than the rocks over the mid oceanic ridges.
• The normal and the reverse magnetic anomalies are found in the alternate manner on either side of mid
oceanic ridge.
• The continents are resting on aesthenosphere which is not only in molten state but is also hot enough to
move the continents above it.
Sea floor spreading also explains various phenomena like Continental drift, occurrence of earthquakes near mid
oceanic ridges and absence of sediments on their summits, presence of active volcanoes on mid oceanic ridges
and absence of rocks older than 135 million years on the ocean floor.
The rate of sea floor spreading is calculated on two bases. First, on the basis of age of isochrones and secondly,
on the basis of the distance between two isochrones. Atlantic and Indian oceans are spreading very sluggishly
while Pacific Ocean is expanding at a relatively faster rate.

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