X.

25
X.25 is a protocol suite defined by ITU-T for packet switched
communications over WAN (Wide Area Network). It was
originally designed for use in the 1970s and became very
popular in 1980s. Presently, it is used for networks for ATMs
and credit card verification. It allows multiple logical
channels to use the same physical line. It also permits data
exchange between terminals with different communication
speeds
 X.25 protocol layers
• Physical Layer: It lays out the physical, electrical and functional characteristics that interface between
the computer terminal and the link to the packet switched node. X.21 physical implementer is
commonly used for the linking.

• Data Link Layer: It comprises the link access procedures for exchanging data over the link. Here,
control information for transmission over the link is attached to the packets from the packet layer to
form the LAPB frame (Link Access Procedure Balanced). This service ensures a bit-oriented, error-
free, and ordered delivery of frames.

• Packet Layer: This layer defines the format of data packets and the procedures for control and
transmission of the data packets. It provides external virtual circuit service. Virtual circuits may be of
two types: virtual call and permanent virtual circuit. The virtual call is established dynamically when
needed through call set up procedure, and the circuit is relinquished through call clearing procedure.
Permanent virtual circuit, on the other hand, is fixed and network assigned.
 Equipment used

• X.21 implementer
• DTE − Data Terminal Equipmen
• DCTE − Data Circuit Termina ng Equipment
 Frame Relay
Frame Relay is a packet switched communication service from
LANs (Local Area Network) to backbone networks and WANs. It
operates at two layers: physical layer and data link layer. It supports
all standard physical layer protocols. It is mostly implemented at the
data link layer.

Frame Relay uses virtual circuits to connect a single router to

multiple remote sites. In most cases, permanent virtual circuits are
used, i.e. a fixed network-assigned circuit is used through which the
user sees a continuous uninterrupted line. However, switched virtual
circuits may also be used.

Frame relay is a fast packet technology based on X.25. Data is

transmitted by encapsulating them in multiple sized frames. The
protocol does not attempt to correct errors and so it is faster. Error
correction is handled by the endpoints, which are responsible for
retransmission of dropped frames
 Techniques for Packet Switching
• Variable-length packets
• Statistical multiplexing
Variable-length packets are used for more efficient and flexible
data transfers. These packets are switched between the various
segments in the network until the destination is reached.
Statistical multiplexing techniques control network access in a
packet-switched network. The advantage of this technique is that it
accommodates more flexibility and more efficient use of bandwidth.
Most of today's popular LANs, such as Ethernet and Token Ring, are
packet-switched networks.
 Frame Relay Standardization
• Initial proposals for the standardization of
Frame Relay were presented to the
Consultative Committee on International
Telephone and Telegraph (CCITT) in 1984.
Because of lack of interoperability and lack of
complete standardization, however, Frame
Relay did not experience significant
deployment during the late 1980s.
 A major development in Frame Relay's history
occurred in 1990 when Cisco, Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC), Northern Telecom, and
StrataCom formed a consortium to 168 focus on
Frame Relay technology development. This
consortium developed a specification that
conformed to the basic Frame Relay protocol that
was being discussed in CCITT, but it extended the
protocol with features that provide additional
capabilities for complex internetworking
environments. These Frame Relay extensions are
referred to collectively as the Local Management
Interface (LMI).
 Since the consortium's specification was developed and
published, many vendors have announced their support of this
extended Frame Relay definition. ANSI and CCITT have subsequently
standardized their own variations of the original LMI specification,
and these standardized specifications now are more commonly used
than the original version.

Internationally, Frame Relay was standardized by the

International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunications
Standards Section (ITU-T). In the United States, Frame Relay is an
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard.
 Frame Relay Devices
• DTE − Data Terminal Equipment
• DCTE: − Data Circuit Termina ng Equipment
 FRAME RELAY ARCHITECTURE
• Frame Relay Devices

Devices attached to a Frame Relay WAN fall into the following two general categories:

• Data terminal equipment (DTE)

• Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE)

DTEs generally are considered to be terminating equipment for a specific network and typically
are located on the premises of a customer. In fact, they may be owned by the customer. Examples of DTE
devices are terminals, personal computers, routers, and bridges.

DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices. The purpose of DCE equipment is to provide
clocking and switching services in a network, which are the devices that actually transmit data through
the WAN. In most cases, these are packet [Link] Generally Reside Within Carrier-Operated
WANs shows the relationship between the two categories of devices.
 The connection between a DTE device and a DCE device consists
of both a physical layer component and a link layer component. The
physical component defines the mechanical, electrical, functional, and
procedural specifications for the connection between the devices. One
of the most commonly used physical layer interface specifications is
the recommended standard (RS)-232 specifications. The link layer
component defines the protocol that establishes the connection
between the DTE device, such as a router, and the DCE device, such as
a switch. This article examines a commonly utilized protocol
specification used in WAN networking: the Frame Relay protocol.
 Frame Relay Virtual Circuits
Frame Relay provides connection-oriented data link layer communication. This
means that a defined communication exists between each pair of devices and that
these connections are associated with a connection identifier. This service is
implemented by using a Frame Relay virtual circuit, which is a logical connection
created between two data terminal equipment (DTE) devices across a Frame Relay
packet-switched network (PSN). Virtual circuits provide a bidirectional communication
path from one DTE device to another and are uniquely identified by a data-link
connection identifier (DLCI). A number of virtual circuits can be multiplexed into a
single physical circuit for transmission across the network. This capability often can
reduce the equipment and network complexity required to connect multiple DTE
devices.

A virtual circuit can pass through any number of intermediate DCE devices
(switches) located within the Frame Relay PSN.
Frame Relay virtual circuits Categories

• Switched Virtual Circuits

• Permanent Virtual Circuits
 Switched Virtual Circuits
Switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are temporary connections used in situations requiring
only sporadic data transfer between DTE devices across the Frame Relay network A
communication session across an SVC consists of the following four operational states:

 Call setup - The virtual circuit between two Frame Relay DTE devices is established.

 Data transfer - Data is transmitted between the DTE devices over the virtual circuit.

 Idle - The connection between DTE devices is still active, but no data is transferred. If
an SVC remains in an idle state for a defined period of time, the call can be
terminated.

 Call termination - The virtual circuit between DTE devices is terminated.

• After the virtual circuit is terminated, the DTE devices must establish a
new SVC if there is additional data to be exchanged. It is expected that
SVCs will be established, maintained, and terminated using the same
signaling protocols used in ISDN.

• Few manufacturers of Frame Relay DCE equipment support switched

virtual circuit connections. Therefore, their actual deployment is
minimal in today's Frame Relay networks.

• Previously not widely supported by Frame Relay equipment, SVCs are

now the norm. Companies have found that SVCs save money in the
end because the circuit is not open all the time.
 Permanent Virtual Circuits
Permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) are permanently established connections that are used for
frequent and consistent data transfers between DTE devices across the Frame Relay network.
Communication across PVC does not require the call setup and termination states that are used
with SVCs. PVCs always operate in one of the following two operational states:

 Data transfer - Data is transmitted between the DTE devices over the virtual circuit.

 Idle - The connection between DTE devices is active, but no data is transferred. Unlike SVCs, PVCs
will not be terminated under any circumstances when in an idle state.

DTE devices can begin transferring data whenever they are ready because the circuit is
permanently established.
 Data-Link Connection Identifier

• Frame Relay virtual circuits are identified by

data-link connection identifiers (DLCIs). DLCI
values typically are assigned by the Frame
Relay service provider (for example, the
telephone company). Frame Relay DLCIs have
local significance, which means that their
values are unique in the LAN, but not
necessarily in the Frame Relay WAN.
How two different DTE devices can be assigned the same DLCI
value within one Frame Relay WAN
 Congestion-Control Mechanisms
Frame Relay reduces network overhead by implementing
simple congestion-notification mechanisms rather than explicit,
per-virtual-circuit flow control. Frame Relay typically is
implemented on reliable network media, so data integrity is not
sacrificed because flow control can be left to higher-layer protocols.
Frame Relay implements two congestion-notification mechanisms:

 Forward-explicit congestion notification (FECN)

 Backward-explicit congestion notification (BECN)

 FECN and BECN each is controlled by a single bit contained in the Frame Relay frame header.
The Frame Relay frame header also contains a Discard Eligibility (DE) bit, which is used to identify less
important traffic that can be dropped during periods of congestion.

The FECN bit is part of the Address field in the Frame Relay frame header. The FECN
mechanism is initiated when a DTE device sends Frame Relay frames into the network. If the network
is congested, DCE devices (switches) set the value of the frames' FECN bit to 1. When the frames reach
the destination DTE device, the Address field (with the FECN bit set) indicates that the frame
experienced congestion in the path from source to destination. The DTE device can relay this
information to a higher-layer protocol for processing. Depending on the implementation, flow control
may be initiated, or the indication may be ignored.

The BECN bit is part of the Address field in the Frame Relay frame header. DCE devices set the
value of the BECN bit to 1 in frames traveling in the opposite direction of frames with their FECN bit
set. This informs the receiving DTE device that a particular path through the network is congested. The
DTE device then can relay this information to a higher-layer protocol for processing. Depending on the
implementation, flow-control may be initiated, or the indication may be ignored.
 Frame Relay Discard Eligibility
The Discard Eligibility (DE) bit is used to indicate that a frame
has lower importance than other frames. The DE bit is part of the
Address field in the Frame Relay frame header.
DTE devices can set the value of the DE bit of a frame to 1 to
indicate that the frame has lower importance than other frames.
When the network becomes congested, DCE devices will discard
frames with the DE bit set before discarding those that do not. This
reduces the likelihood of critical data being dropped by Frame Relay
DCE devices during periods of congestion.
 Frame Relay Error Checking
Frame Relay uses a common error-checking mechanism known as
the cyclic redundancy check (CRC). The CRC compares two calculated
values to determine whether errors occurred during the transmission from
source to destination. Frame Relay reduces network overhead by
implementing error checking rather than error correction. Frame Relay
typically is implemented on reliable network media, so data integrity is not
sacrificed because error correction can be left to higher-layer protocols
running on top of Frame Relay.
 Frame Relay Local Management Interface
The Local Management Interface (LMI) is a set of enhancements to the basic Frame Relay specification.
The LMI was developed in 1990 by Cisco Systems, StrataCom, Northern Telecom, and Digital Equipment
Corporation. It offers a number of features (called extensions) for managing complex internetworks. Key Frame
Relay LMI extensions include global addressing, virtual circuit status messages, and multicasting.

The LMI global addressing extension gives Frame Relay data-link connection identifier (DLCI) values global
rather than local significance. DLCI values become DTE addresses that are unique in the Frame Relay WAN. The
global addressing extension adds functionality and manageability to Frame Relay internetworks. Individual
network interfaces and the end nodes attached to them, for example, can be identified by using standard address-
resolution and discovery techniques. In addition, the entire Frame Relay network appears to be a typical LAN to
routers on its periphery.

LMI virtual circuit status messages provide communication and synchronization between Frame Relay DTE
and DCE devices. These messages are used to periodically report on the status of PVCs, which prevents data from
being sent into black holes (that is, over PVCs that no longer exist).

The LMI multicasting extension allows multicast groups to be assigned. Multicasting saves bandwidth by
allowing routing updates and address-resolution messages to be sent only to specific groups of routers. The
extension also transmits reports on the status of multicast groups in update messages.
 Frame Relay Frame Formats
Flags indicate the beginning and end of the frame.
Three primary components make up the Frame Relay
frame: the header and address area, the user-data
portion, and the frame check sequence (FCS). The address
area, which is 2 bytes in length, is comprised of 10 bits
representing the actual circuit identifier and 6 bits of
fields related to congestion management. This identifier
commonly is referred to as the data-link connection
identifier (DLCI).
 Formats of Frame Relay Frames

Standard Frame Relay Frame

LMI (Local Management Interface) Frame
Format
Standard Frame Relay Frame

Five Fields Comprise the Frame Relay Frame

 Flags - Delimits the beginning and end of the frame. The value of this field is always the same and is represented either
as the hexadecimal number 7E or as the binary number 01111110.

 Address - Contains the following information:

 DLCI - The 10-bit DLCI is the essence of the Frame Relay header. This value represents the virtual connection
between the DTE device and the switch. Each virtual connection that is multiplexed onto the physical channel will be
represented by a unique DLCI. The DLCI values have local significance only, which means that they are unique only to
the physical channel on which they reside. Therefore, devices at opposite ends of a connection can use different DLCI
values to refer to the same virtual connection.

 Extended Address (EA) - The EA is used to indicate whether the byte in which the EA value is 1 is the last
addressing field. If the value is 1, then the current byte is determined to be the last DLCI octet. Although current Frame
Relay implementations all use a two-octet DLCI, this capability does allow longer DLCIs to be used in the future. The
eighth bit of each byte of the Address field is used to indicate the EA.

 C/R - The C/R is the bit that follows the most significant DLCI byte in the Address field. The C/R bit is not
currently defined.

 Congestion Control - This consists of the 3 bits that control the Frame Relay congestion-notification
mechanisms. These are the FECN, BECN, and DE bits, which are the last 3 bits in the Address field.
 Forward-explicit congestion notification (FECN) is a single-bit field that can be set to a value of 1
by a switch to indicate to an end DTE device, such as a router, that congestion was experienced in the
direction of the frame transmission from source to destination. The primary benefit of the use of the
FECN and BECN fields is the capability of higher-layer protocols to react intelligently to these congestion
indicators. Today, DECnet and OSI are the only higher-layer protocols that implement these capabilities.

Backward-explicit congestion notification (BECN) is a single-bit field that, when set to a value of 1
by a switch, indicates that congestion was experienced in the network in the direction opposite of the
frame transmission from source to destination.

Discard eligibility (DE) is set by the DTE device, such as a router, to indicate that the marked
frame is of lesser importance relative to other frames being transmitted. Frames that are marked as
"discard eligible" should be discarded before other frames in a congested network. This allows for a
basic prioritization mechanism in Frame Relay networks.
 Data - Contains encapsulated upper-layer data. Each
frame in this variable-length field includes a user data
or payload field that will vary in length up to 16,000
octets. This field serves to transport the higher-layer
protocol packet (PDU) through a Frame Relay network.
 Frame Check Sequence - Ensures the integrity of
transmitted data. This value is computed by the source
device and verified by the receiver to ensure integrity of
transmission.
 LMI Frame Format

Nine Fields Comprise the Frame Relay That Conforms to the LMI Format
 Flag - Delimits the beginning and end of the frame.

 LMI DLCI - Identifies the frame as an LMI frame instead of a basic Frame Relay frame. The LMI-specific DLCI value
defined in the LMI consortium specification is DLCI = 1023.

 Unnumbered Information Indicator - Sets the poll/final bit to zero.

 Protocol Discriminator - Always contains a value indicating that the frame is an LMI frame.

 Call Reference - Always contains zeros. This field currently is not used for any purpose.

 Message Type - Labels the frame as one of the following message types:

(a) Status-inquiry message - Allows a user device to inquire about the status of the network.

(b) Status message - Responds to status-inquiry messages. Status messages include keepalives and PVC status
messages

 Information Elements - Contains a variable number of individual information elements (IEs). IEs consist of the
following fields:

(a) IE Identifier - Uniquely identifies the IE.

(b) IE Length - Indicates the length of the IE.

(c) Data - Consists of 1 or more bytes containing encapsulated upper-layer data.

 Frame Check Sequence (FCS) - Ensures the integrity of transmitted data.

INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK (ISDN)

ISDN referst to the set of communication protocols proposed by the

telephone companies to permit telephone networks to carry data, voice
and other source material. ISDN involves the digitization of the telephone
network, which permits voice, data, text, graphics, music, video, and other
source material to be transmitted over existing telephone wires. ISDN
applications include high-speed image applications additional telephone
lines in homes to serve the telecommuting industry, high-speed file
transfer, and videoconferencing. ISDN is generally viewed as an alternative
to frame relay and T1 wide area telephone service ( WATS).
 Benefits of Digital Connectivity
 ISDN provides a faster data transfer rate Telephone companies with the intention of creating a
totally digital network for increased bandwidth speeds developed ISDN.

 ISDN was developed to use the existing telephone wiring system to enhance WAN usage with
out incurring major networking costs.

 ISDN provides a faster data transfer rate Telephone companies with the intention of creating a
totally digital network for increased bandwidth speeds developed ISDN.

 ISDN was developed to use the existing telephone wiring system to enhance WAN usage with
out incurring major networking costs.

 ISDN provides access to digital video, circuit-switched data, and telephone network services
by using the normal phone network that is circuit-switched.

 ISDN offers much faster call setup than modem connections because it uses out-of-band (D
channel) signaling. For example ISDN calls can be setup in less than one second.

 ISDN can provide a clear data path over which to negotiate PPP links.

 ISDN offers Dial on Demand Routing, which means you only pay for the time that you use the
link.
 ISDN Devices
ISDN devices include:
 Terminals
 Terminal adapters (TAs),
 Network-termination devices,
 Line-termination equipment,
 Exchange-termination equipment.
 ISDN terminals come in two types. Specialized ISDN terminals are referred to as terminal
equipment type 1 (TE1). Non-ISDN terminals, such as DTE, are referred to as terminal equipment
type 2 (TE2). TE1s connect to the ISDN network through a four-wire, twisted-pair digital link. TE2s
connect to the ISDN network through a TA.

Beyond the TE1 and TE2 devices, the next connection point in the ISDN network is the
network termination type 1 (NT1) or network termination type 2 (NT2) device. These are network-
termination devices that connect the four-wire subscriber wiring to the conventional two-wire local
loop. In North America, the NT1 is a customer premises equipment (CPE) device. In most other
parts of the world, the NT1 is part of the network provided by the carrier. The NT2 is a more
complicated device that typically is found in digital private branch exchanges (PBXs) and that
performs Layer 2 and 3 protocol functions and concentration services. An NT1/2 device also exists
as a single device that combines the functions of an NT1 and an NT2.
ISDN specifies a number of reference points that define logical interfaces
between functional groups, such as TAs and NT1s. ISDN reference points
include the following:

 R - The reference point between non-ISDN equipment and a

TA.

 S - The reference point between user terminals and the NT2.

 T - The reference point between NT1 and NT2 devices.

 U - The reference point between NT1 devices and line-

termination equipment in the carrier network. The U reference
point is relevant only in North America, where the NT1 function is
not provided by the carrier network.
 Sample ISDN configuration and shows three devices attached to an ISDN switch at the
central office. Two of these devices are ISDN-compatible, so they can be attached through an S
reference point to NT2 devices. The third device (a standard, non-103
ISDN telephone) attaches through the reference point to a TA. Any of these devices also could
attach to an NT1/2 device, which would replace both the NT1 and the NT2. In addition, although
they are not shown, similar user stations are attached to the far-right ISDN switch.

Sample ISDN Configuration Illustrates Relationships Between Devices and Reference Points
 ISDN SERVICES
ISDN BRI sercive:

The ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI) service offers two B channels and one D channel (2B+D).
BRI B-channel service operates at 64 kbps and is meant to carry user data; BRI D-104 channel
service operates at 16 kbps and is meant to carry control and signaling information, although it can
support user data transmission under certain circumstances.

ISDN PRI Service:

ISDN Primary Rate Interface (PRI) service offers 23 B channels and 1 D channel in North
America and Japan, yielding a total bit rate of 1.544 Mbps (the PRI D channel runs at 64 kbps). ISDN
PRI in Europe, Australia, and other parts of the world provides 30 B channels plus one 64-kbps D
channel and a total interface rate of 2.048 Mbps.
 ISDN System Architecture
Layer - 1
ISDN physical layer (Layer 1) frame formats differ depending on whether the frame is outbound (from
terminal to network) or inbound (from network to terminal). The frames are 48 bits long, of which 36 bits represent
data. The bits of an ISDN physical layer frame are used as follows:

 F - Provides synchronization

 L - Adjusts the average bit value

 E - Ensures contention resolution when several terminals on a passive bus contend for a channel

 A - Activates devices

 S - Is unassigned

 B1, B2, and D - Handle user data

Multiple ISDN user devices can be physically attached to one circuit. In this configuration, collisions can
result if two terminals transmit simultaneously. Therefore, ISDN provides features to determine link contention.
When an NT receives a D bit from the TE, it echoes back the bit in the next E-bit position. The TE expects the next
E bit to be the same as its last transmitted D bit.
ISDN Physical Layer Frame Formats Differ Depending on Their Direction
 LAYER 2
Layer 2 of the ISDN signaling protocol is Link Access Procedure, D channel (LAPD). LAPD is
similar to High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) and Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB). As the
expansion of the LAPD acronym indicates, this layer is used across the D channel to ensure that
control and signaling information flows and is received properly. The LAPD frame is very similar to
that of HDLC; like HDLC, LAPD uses supervisory, information, and unnumbered frames. The LAPD
protocol is formally specified in ITU-T Q.920 and ITU-T.

The LAPD Flag and Control fields are identical to those of HDLC. The LAPD Address field can
be either 1 or 2 bytes long. If the extended address bit of the first byte is set, the address is 1 byte;
if it is not set, the address is 2 bytes. The first Address-field byte contains the service access point
identifier (SAPI), which identifies the portal at which LAPD services are provided to Layer 3. The C/R
bit indicates whether the frame contains a command or a response. The Terminal Endpoint
Identifier (TEI) field identifies either a single terminal or multiple terminals. A TEI of all ones
indicates a broadcast.
LAPD Frame Format Is Similar to That of HDLC and LAPB
 LAYER 3
Two Layer 3 specifications are used for ISDN signaling: ITU-T
(formerly CCITT) I.450 (also known as ITU-T Q.930) and ITU-T I.451
(also known as ITU-T Q.931). Together, these protocols support
user-to-user, circuit-switched, and packet-switched connections. A
variety of call-establishment, call-termination, information, and
miscellaneous messages are specified, including SETUP, CONNECT,
RELEASE, USER INFORMATION, CANCEL, STATUS, and DISCONNECT.
These messages are functionally similar to those provided by the
X.25 protocol.
An ISDN Circuit-Switched Call Moves Through Various Stages to Its Destination
 BROADBAND ISDN
The original specifications for the integrated services digital network (ISDN),
were based around voice and non-voice telephone-type services: telephony, data,
telex, facsimile, as it 108 was hoped that the ISDN would evolve from the (then)
emerging digital telephone networks. Indeed, this is one of the reasons that the
fundamental element of an ISDN link is the 64 Kb/s B-Channels. However, the
planning for ISDN was started around 1976, and as technology evolved, so did the
requirements of the users that wanted to use this technology. In 1988, the CCITT
released a document that described a new set of Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN)
services. To distinguish this new concept from the original ISDN service, we now
refer to the latter as Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN).
 Broadband ISDN services
The need for a Broadband ISDN service sprung from the growing needs of the customers. The planned Broadband ISDN

services can broadly be categorized as follows:

 Interactive services. These are services allowing information flow between two end users of the network, or between the user and

the service provider. Such services can be subdivided:

 Conversational services. These are basically end-to-end, real-time communications, between users or between a user and a service

provider, e.g. telephone-like services. Indeed, B-ISDN will support N-ISDN type services. (Note also that the user-to-user signaling,

user-to-network signaling, and inter-exchange signaling are also provided but outside our scope.) Also the additional bandwidth

offered will allow such services as video telephony, video conferencing and high volume, high speed data transfer.

 Messaging services. This differs from conversational services in that it is mainly a store-and-forward type of service. Applications

could include voice and video mail, as well as multi-media mail and traditional electronic mail.

 Retrieval services. This service provides access to (public) information stores, and information is sent to the user on demand only.

This includes things like tele-shopping, videotex services, still and moving pictures, telesoftware and entertainment.

 Distribution services. These are mainly broadcast services, are intended for mainly one way interaction from a service provider to a

user:

No user control of presentation. This would be for instance, a TV broadcast, where the user can choose simply either to

view or not. It is expected that cable TV companies will become interested in Broadband ISDN as a carrier for the high definition TV

(HDTV) services that are forseen for the future.

User controlled presentation. This would apply to broadcast information that the user can partially control, in that the

user can decide which part of it he/she accesses, e.g. teletext and news retrieval services.
 Broadband ISDN Protocol Reference Model

The network is described in terms of a protocol reference model (PRM). Not

all of the PRM is fully defined. The main aspects of the model are that it can be viewed
in terms of the three planes -- user plane, control plane and management plane -- and in
terms of the 3 layers -- ATM adaptation layer, ATM layer and the Physical layer.
 The functions of the layers
ATM adaptation layer (AAL):

This layer is responsible for mapping the service offered by ATM to the
service expected by the higher layers. It has two sublayers.

 Convergence sub layer (CS). Responsible for presenting the ATM service to
the higher layers. The functionality of this sub layer is very much dependent on the
higher layer service.

 Segmentation and reassembly (SAR). This layer is responsible for, at the

transmitter, splitting the higher level PDU into 48 octet chunks, and at the receiving
side, to reassemble the 48 octet chunks back into the original PDU.
 ATM Layer:

This layer is independent of the physical medium over which transmission is

to take place. It has following functions:

 Generic flow control (GFC) function. This can be used to alleviate short term
overload conditions above the ATM layer, as it is accessible by the user.

 Cell header generation and extraction. At the transmitter, adds header

information to a cell and at the receiver removes it.

 Cell multiplex and demultiplex. At the transmitter, multiplex cells into one
continuous stream and at the header demultiplex the cells according to VPI and VCI
values.
 Physical layer: This consists of two sublayers:

 Transport Convergence (TC). This sub layer has five functions:

 Cell rate decoupling. Insertion and extraction of idle cells.

 Header error control (HEC) generation and verification. In the transmitter, generation of the
HEC, and in the receiver checking of the HEC. The HEC that is used can detect and correct a 1 bit
error and can further detect certain multiple bit errors.

 Cell delineation. In the receiver, detection of cell boundaries.

 Transmission frame adaptation. Adapts cell flow according to the payload of the Physical
level frame being used, e.g. for SDH.

 Transmission frame generation and recovery. At the transmitter, generates Physical level
frames, and at the receiver, extracts the ATM cells from the Physical level frame.
 Physical medium (PM). This contains two sublayers:

 Bit timing. Insertion and extraction of bit timing information and generation and reception of
waveforms.

 Physical medium. Bit transmission, bit alignment and optical electrical conversion, if required. (The
physical medium need not be optical, at least for transmission rates of 155Mb/s and lower.)

This (sub-) layering of the PRM is depicted in Figure as:

Broadband ISDN layer functionality

 The management plane consists of two functions to perform layer management and plane
management. The plane management is not layered as the other layers are. This is because it relies needs
information on all aspects of the the system to provide management facilities for the systems as a whole.
The layer management provides information and control facilities for the protocol entities that exists in
each individual layer. This includes operation and maintenance (OAM) functions for each layer.

The control plane is responsible for the supervision of connections, including call set-up, call
release and maintenance.

The user plane provides for the transfer of user information. It also includes mechanisms to
perform error recovery, flow control etc.

Broadband ISDN intends to offer many Mb/s to the user, but intends to remain backwards
compatible with Narrowband ISDN. Indeed, the Narrowband services will eventually need to be offered
over the global Broadband network to come. To this extent the user interface to Broadband ISDN is very
similar to that for Narrowband ISDN
 The position of the user to network interface (UNI), as well as
the internal network to network interface (NNI) for BISDN.

Broadband ISDN user and network interfaces

 It is expected that Narrowband ISDN (or even other PSTN) equipment will
be able to connect to the Broadband network via a suitable terminal adaptor.

Broadband ISDN UNI configuration reference points

 B-NT1

This group contains functions that are considered to be part of OSI layer 1. It represents the
physical connection point to the network, i.e. the socket on the wall. It includes functions such as:

 Line transmission termination. Provision of the physical connection.

 Transmission interface handling. The interface to the transmission channel, be it electrical or optical.

 Operation and Maintenance (OAM). This is not normally associated with the socket in the wall. However,
it is expected that for B-ISDN, more sophisticated management capabilities will be required than at
present.

B-NT2

This group contains OSI layer 1 and higher OSI layer functions:

 Adaptation functions. For different physical media and network topologies.

 Multiplexing and demultiplexing. The user data may be sent and received on several VCCs and VPCs.

 Buffering. User data may be sent and/or received at varying rates with respect to the B-ISDN user and the
network.

 Signaling. VCCs/VPCs must be established, controlled and released.

 Interface. Interaction with the B-ISDN user.

B-TE1

Equipment requiring B-ISDN access.

B-TA

Equipment allowing connection of other B-ISDN, N-ISDN and non-ISDN equipment.

B-TE2

B-ISDN with special interface needs or N-ISDN equipment.

TE2

Non-ISDN equipment.

Note that these are logical units. The physical implementation may be quite different. For
instance, it may be common to find the following in the same physical unit, depending on need: B-
NT1 and B-NT2; B-TE1 and B-NT2; B-TA and B-TE2 etc.
 The B-NT2 equipment is
considered to be the
customer premisis
equipment (CPN) (Figure
10). This could in real
terms be an private branch
exchange (PBX) or other
local switch.

B-ISDN customer premisis network configuration

The way in which the terminal

equipment is connected to the
user-to-network interface via
B-NT1/B-NT2 is not restricted
with respect to local topologies

Broadband ISDN multiple interface configurations

 There is no defined relationship between the B-ISDN PRM and the OSI
reference model, despite explained by taking OSI as reference model. This was
developed in collaboration between the ISO and the (then) CCITT.

Broadband ISDN PRM compared with OSI model

 As there is unlikely to be a user interface directly to the AAL,there are the interfaces to the service classes
defined by the ATM Forum for the UNI:

 Constant bit rate (CBR)

The CBR service offers a very simple, reliable guaranteed channel that effectively acts as circuit emulation.
The QoS of this service must be maintained throughout the lifetime of a CBR connection, as the data rate is expected
to be constant. It is intended for use by applications with stringent real-time constraints on delay and jitter, e.g.\ real-
time video.

 Variable bit rate (VBR)

This service is also intended for use by by real-time applications. However, it differs from CBR in that it does
not expect the data rate to be constant, i.e. the sources may use variable bit rate coding for efficiency and also be
statistically multiplexed.

 Available bit rate (ABR)

This service class offers the B-ISDN user some degree of fairness, and also control of loss or delay with
respect to QoS, but is intended for non real-time applications. It is likely that ABR QoS statements will specify that
there are minimum acceptable parameters, but that if better QoS should become available then it will be used. ABR is
intended for use by unit-oriented applications such as database access and electronic mail.

 Unspecified bit rate (UBR)

UBR is intended for applications that send data very sporadically and the use of CBR, VBR or ABR would be
wasteful of resources. In fact, this service class is effectively a best-effort approach which is similar to today's IP.
Applications that use this service would have non-real time requirements and not be too sensitive to loss, e.g. file
transfers.
 OPERATION AND MANTAINANCE
OAM functions in the network are performed on five OAM hierarchical levels associated with the ATM and

physical layers of the protocol reference model. The functions result in corresponding bidirectional information flows F1,

F2, F3, F4 and F5 referred to as OAM flows. Not all of these flows need to be present. The OAM functions of a missing

level are performed at the next higher level. The levels are as follows:

 Virtual channel level: Extends between network elements performing VCC termination functions and is shown extending

through one or more VPCs

 Virtual path level: Extends between network elements performing VPC termination functions and is shown extending

through one or more transmission paths.

 Transmission path level: Extends between network elements assembling/disassembling the payload of a transmission

system and associating it with its OAM functions. Cell delineation and Header Error Control (HEC) functions are required

at the endpoints of each transmission path. The transmission path is connected through one or more digital sections.

 Digital section level: Extends between section endpoints and comprises a maintenance entity.

 Regenerator section level: A regenerator section is a portion of a digital section and as such is a maintenance sub-entity.

This layered concept and the requirements of independence of the layers from each other lead to the following

principles. OAM functions related to OAM levels are independent from the OAM functions of other levels and have to be

provided at each level. Each level, where OAM functions are required, is able to carry out its own processing to obtain

quality and status information.