OVERVIEW

Heat transfer is the science that seeks to predict

the energy transfer that may take place between
material bodies as a result of a temperature difference.
Thermodynamics teaches that t his energy transfer is
defined as heat. The science of heat transfer seeks not
merely to explain how heat energy may be transferred,
but also to predic t the rate at which the exchange will
take place under certain specified conditions. The fact
that a heat -transfer rate is the desired objective of an
analysis points out the difference between heat
transfer and thermodynamics. Thermodynamics deals
with systems in equilibrium; it may be used to predict
the amount of energy required to change a system
from one equilibrium state to another; it may not be
used to predict how fast a change will take place since
the system is not in equilibrium during the process .
Heat transfer supplements the first and second
principles of thermodynamics by providing additional
experimental rules that may be used to establish
energy-transfer rates. As in the science of
thermodynamics, the experimental rules used as a
basis of the subject of heat transfer are rather simple
and easily expanded to encompass a variety of
practical situations.

In this module, you will learn the Steady-State

Convection- Multiple Dimension. Examples will be provide d
every after lesso n.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you should be able to

analyze the more general case of two-dimensional heat flow and
predict heat flow or the temperature that results from the certain
heat flow.

LEARNING PLAN

In Module 8 steady-state heat transfer was calculated in

systems in which the temperature gradient and area could be
expressed in terms of one space coordinate. We now wish to
analyze the more general case of two-dimensional heat flow.

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For steady state with no heat generation, the Laplace equation
applies.

∂2 𝑇 ∂2 𝑇
+ ∂𝑦 2 = 0 --- (9.1)
∂𝑥 2

assuming constant thermal conductivity. The solution to this

equation may be obtained by analytical, numerical, or graphical
techniques. The objective of any heat-transfer analysis is usually
to predict heat flow or the temperature that results from a certain
heat flow. The solution to Equation (9-1) will give the temperature
in a two-dimensional body as a function of the two independent
space coordinates x and y. Then the heat flow in the x and y
directions may be calculated from the Fourier equations

∂𝑇
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴𝑥 --- (9.2)
∂𝑥

∂𝑇
𝑞𝑦 = −𝑘𝐴𝑦 ∂y --- (9.3)

These heat-flow quantities are directed either in the x direction

or in the y direction. The total heat flow at any point in the
material is the resultant of the 𝑞𝑥 and 𝑞𝑦 at that point. Thus, the
total heat-flow vector is directed so that it is perpendicular to the
lines of constant temperature in the material, as shown in Figure
9-1. So, if the temperature distribution in the material is known,
we may easily establish the heat flow.

MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL HEAT

CONDUCTION

We first consider an analytical approach to a two-

dimensional problem and then indicate the numerical and
graphical methods that may be used to advantage in many other
problems. It is worthwhile to mention here that analytical
solutions are not always possible to obtain; indeed, in many
instances they are very cumbersome and difficult to use. In these
cases, numerical techniques are frequently used to advantage.
Consider the rectangular plate shown in Figure 9-2. Three sides
of the plate are maintained at the constant temperature T1, and
the upper side has some temperature distribution impressed
upon it. This distribution could be simply a constant temperature
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 or something more complex, such as a sine-wave distribution.
We shall consider both cases. To solve Equation (9-1), the
separation-of-variables method is used. The essential point of
this method is that the solution to the differential equation is
assumed to take a product form

𝑇 = 𝑋𝑌 where 𝑋 = 𝑋(𝑥)
Y= 𝑌(𝑦) --- (9-4)

The boundary conditions are then applied to determine the form

of the functions X and Y. The basic assumption as given by
Figure 9.1. Sketch showing the Equation (9-4) can be justified only if it is possible to find a
heat flow in two dimensions solution of this form that satisfies the boundary conditions.

THE CONDUCTION SHAPE FACTOR

In a two-dimensional system where only two temperature

limits are involved, we may define a conduction shape factor S
such that

Figure 9-2. Isotherms and heat 𝑞 = 𝑘𝑆𝛥𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙

flow lines in a rectangular plate
The values of S have been worked out for several geometries
and are summarized in Table 9-1. A very comprehensive
summary of shape factors for a large variety of geometries is
given by Rohsenow [15] and Hahne and Grigull [17]. Note that
the inverse hyperbolic cosine can be calculated from

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥 = ln⁡(𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 − 1)

For a three-dimensional wall, as in a furnace, separate shape

factors are used to calculate the heat flow through the edge and
corner sections, with the dimensions shown in Figure 9-3. When
all the interior dimensions are greater than one-fifth of the wall
thickness,

𝐴
𝑆𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝐿

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 𝑆𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 0.54𝐷

𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 0.15𝐿

where

𝐴 = area of wall
𝐿 = wall thickness
𝐷 = length of edge

Note that the shape factor per unit depth is given by the ratio M/N
when the curvilinear squares method is used for calculations.

Figure 9.3. Sketch illustrating dimensions for use in calculating

three-dimensional shape factors.

EXAMPLE NO. 1 Cubical Furnace

A small cubical furnace 50 by 50 by 50 cm on the inside is

constructed of fireclay brick [k = 1.04 W/m·oC] with a wall
thickness of 10 cm. The inside of the furnace is maintained at
500 oC, and the outside is maintained at 50 oC. Calculate the
heat lost through the walls. Solution We compute the total
shape factor by adding the shape factors for the walls, edges,
and corners:
Walls:

Solution:
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 We compute the total shape factor by adding the shape factors
for the walls, edges, and corners
𝐴
Walls: 𝑆𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝐿

(0.5⁡𝑚)(0.5⁡𝑚)
⁡𝑆𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = 2.5⁡𝑚
0.1⁡𝑚

Edges: 𝑆𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 0.54𝐷

𝑆𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 0.54(0.5⁡𝑚) = 0.27⁡𝑚⁡

Corners: 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 0.15𝐿

edge 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 0.15(0.1⁡𝑚) = 0.015⁡𝑚

For a cubical furnace, there are six wall sections, twelve

edges, and eight corners, so that the total shape factor is

S = (6)(2.5 m) + (12)(0.27 m) + (8)(0.015 m)

= 18.36 m

and the heat flow is calculated as

q = kSΔT
wall corner
= (1.04 W/m·oC)(18.36 m)(500 oC – 50 oC)

= 8,592.48 W

= 8.592 kW [29.320 Btu/h]

Check Your Level of Understanding

Problem No.1: A furnace of 70- by 60- by 90-cm inside
dimensions is constructed of a material having a thermal
conductivity of 0.5 Btu/h·ft·◦F. The wall thickness is 6 in.
The inner and outer surface temperatures are 500 and
100◦F, respectively. Calculate the heat loss through the
furnace wall. (10 pts)

Solution:

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 Check Your Level of Understanding
Problem No.2: A cube 35 cm on each external side is
constructed of fireclay brick. The wall thickness is 5.0 cm. The
inner surface temperature is 500◦C, and the outer surface
temperature is 80◦C. Compute the heat flow in watts. (10 pts)

Solution:

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Table 9-1 Conduction shape factors, summarized from References 6 and 7.
Note: For buried objects the temperature difference is ΔT =Tobject − Tfar
field. The far-field temperature is taken the same as the isothermal

surface temperature for semi-infinite media

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Table 9-1 (continued)

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Table 9-1 (continued)

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 EXAMPLE NO. 2 Buried Pipe

A horizontal pipe 15 cm in diameter and 4 m long is buried in

the earth at a depth of 20 cm. The pipe-wall temperature is
75◦C, and the earth surface temperature is 5◦C. Assuming that
the thermal conductivity of the earth is 0.8 W/m·oC, calculate
the heat lost by the pipe.

Solution:

From Table 2-1 for buried pipe, look for shape factor equation
for this situation. Check the relationship between D and r,
since D<3r,
2𝜋𝐿
⁡𝑆⁡ = 𝐷
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1⁡ (⁡ )
𝑟

2𝜋(4⁡𝑚)
= 20⁡𝑐𝑚 = ⁡15.35⁡𝑚
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1⁡ (⁡ )
7.5⁡𝑐𝑚

The heat flow is calculated from

𝑞 = 𝑘𝑆𝛥𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙

𝑊
⁡⁡⁡⁡= (0.8 m·𝑜 𝐶 ) (15.35⁡𝑚)(75𝑜 𝐶 − ⁡ 5𝑜 𝐶 )⁡

= 859.6⁡𝑊

EXAMPLE NO. 3 Buried Disk

A disk having a diameter of 30 cm and maintained at a

temperature of 95 oC is buried at a depth of 1.0 m in a semi-
infinite medium having an isothermal surface temperature of
20 oC and a thermal conductivity of 2.1W /m·oC. Calculate the
heat lost by the disk.

Solution:

This is an application of the conduction shape factor relation

𝑞 = 𝑘𝑆𝛥𝑇. Looking at Table 2-1, we find a choice of three
relations for S for the geometry of a disk buried in a semi-
infinite medium with an isothermal surface. Clearly, D ≠ 0 and
D is not large compared to 2r, so the relation we select for the
shape factor is for the case D/2r > 1.0:
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 From Table 2-1 for buried pipe, look for shape factor equation
for this situation. Since D<3r,

4𝜋𝑟
⁡𝑆⁡ = 𝜋 𝑟
[⁡ 2 ⁡−⁡𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (2𝐷)]

Note that this relation differs from the one for an insulated
surface by the minus sign in the denominator. Inserting 𝑟 =
0.15 m and 𝐷 = 1.0 m we obtain

4𝜋(𝑜.15⁡𝑚)
𝑆⁡ = 𝜋 0.15⁡𝑚 = 1.26⁡𝑚
[⁡ ⁡−⁡𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( )]
2 2[1.0⁡𝑚]

For buried objects the shape factor is based on 𝛥𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 −

𝑇𝑓𝑎𝑟⁡𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 . The far field temperature is taken as the isothermal
surface temperature, and the heat lost by the disk is therefore

𝑞 = 𝑘𝑆𝛥𝑇

𝑞 = (2.1⁡𝑊/𝑚 ∙𝑜 𝐶)(1.26⁡𝑚)(95𝑜 𝐶 − 20𝑜 𝐶)

⁡⁡⁡⁡= 198.45⁡𝑊⁡

EXAMPLE NO. 4 Buried parallel Disks

Two parallel 50-cm-diameter disks are separated by a

distance of 1.5 m in an infinite medium having k = 2.3 W /m·◦C.
One disk is maintained at 80◦C and the other at 20◦C.
Calculate the heat transfer between the disks.

Given: d = 50 cm = 0.5 m; 𝑟 = 0.25 m

𝐷⁡= 1.5 m
𝑘⁡= 2.3 W /m·◦C
𝑇𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 = ⁡80 ◦ C⁡
𝑇𝑓𝑎𝑟⁡𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = ⁡20 ◦ C

Required: q

Solution:

This is a shape-factor problem and the heat transfer may be

calculated from

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 𝑞 = 𝑘𝑆𝛥𝑇

Where S is obtained from table 2-1 as

4𝜋𝑟
𝑆= 𝜋 𝑟 for 𝐷 > 5𝑟
[ −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )]
2 𝐷

With 𝑟 = 0.25⁡𝑚 and 𝐷 = 1.5⁡𝑚, we obtain

4𝜋(0.25⁡𝑚)
𝑆= 𝜋 0.25⁡𝑚 = 2.235⁡𝑚
[ 2 −𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( 1.5⁡𝑚 )]

And

𝑞 = 𝑘𝑆𝛥𝑇 = (2.3⁡W⁡/m ·◦ C)(2.235⁡m)(80 − 20)

𝑞 = 308.4⁡𝑊

Check Your Level of Understanding

Problem No.3: Two long cylinders 8.0 and 3.0 cm in diameter
are completely surrounded by a medium with k=1.4W /m·oC.
The distance between centers is 10 cm, and the cylinders are
maintained at 200 and 35 oC. Calculate the heat-transfer rate
per unit length. (10 pts)

Solution:

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 Check Your Level of Understanding
Problem No.4: A 10-cm-diameter sphere maintained at 30◦C
is buried in the earth at a place where k=1.2W /m·◦C. The
depth to the centerline is 24 cm, and the earth surface
temperature is 0◦C. Calculate the heat lost by the sphere. (10
pts)

Solution:

Check Your Level of Understanding

Problem No.5: In certain locales, power transmission is made
by means of underground cables. In one example an 8.0-cm-
diameter cable is buried at a depth of 1.3 m, and the resistance
of the cable is 1.1×10-4 Ω/m. The surface temperature of the
ground is 25 oC, and k = 1.2 W /m·oC for earth. Calculate the
maximum allowable current if the outside temperature of the
cable cannot exceed 110 oC. (10 pts)

Solution:

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 Check Your Level of Understanding
Problem No.6: Two pipes are buried in the earth and
maintained at temperatures of 200 and 100 oC. The diameters
are 9 and 18 cm, and the distance between centers is 40 cm.
Calculate the heat-transfer rate per unit length if the thermal
conductivity of earth at this location is 1.1W /m·oC. (10 pts)

Solution:

Check Your Level of Understanding

Problem No.7: Two long, eccentric cylinders having diameters
of 20 and 5 cm, respectively, are maintained at 100 and 20 oC
and separated by a material with k = 2.5 W /m · oC. The
distance between centers is 5.5 cm. Calculate the heat
transfer per unit length between the cylinders. (10 pts)

Solution:

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 Check Your Level of Understanding
Problem No.8: Along cylinder has its surface maintained at
135 oC and is buried in a material having a thermal
conductivity of 15.5 W /m·oC. The diameter of the
cylinder is 3 cm and the depth to its centerline is 5 cm.
The surface temperature of the material is 46 oC.
Calculate the heat lost by the cylinder per meter of
length. (10 pts)

Solution:

REFERENCE:

Heat Transfer, 10th ed. By J.P. Holman,

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