Hand Book for CSWIP 3.1 By Mr.

M Zubair (Trainer)

Certification Scheme for Welding & Inspection Personnel

CSWIP Certification Scheme

• Level 1: 3.0 Visual Welding Inspector
• Level 2: 3.1 Welding Inspector
• Level 3: 3.2 Senior Welding Inspector
•
General 30 Mcqs 1 hour
Technology 60 Mcqs 1 hour 30 mint
Macro 24 Mcqs 45 mint
Plate 20 Mcqs 1 hour 30 mint
Pipe 20 Mcqs 2 hour

Prepared By:

Mr. M Zubair
CSWIP 3.1 Certified (Instructor)
Cell#:0333-6272515
0308-5838032
Email: m.zubairaslam15@[Link]
Course Contents:
Sr No. Chapter Name
1- Roles and Duties of a Welding Inspector
2- Terms and Definitions
3- Welding Imperfections
4- Destructive Testing
5- Codes and Standards
6- Non-Destructive Testing
7- Introduction to Welding Processes
8- MMA (SMAW)
9- TIG (GTAW)
10- MIG/MAG (GMAW)
11- SAW
12- Weld ability of Steels
13- Thermal Cutting
14- Welding Symbols
15- Welder Qualification
16- Application and Control of Pre-Heat
17- Heat Treatments (PWHT)
18- Stress and Distortion
19- Weld Repair
20- Practical (Pipe & Plate)
21- Practical (Macro)

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 Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors

Duties and Responsibilities: BS EN 970/17637 (Visual Examination)

Welding Inspector Personal Attributes:

Honesty Integrity Knowledge Good communicator Physical fitness Good eyesight
In accordance with EN 473 and should be checked every 12 months Have good vision

Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970/17637)

Illumination: 350 lux minimum required
(recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office
lighting) Vision Access:
• eye should be within 600mm of the surface
• viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than 30°

Magnification lens used should have magnification between X2 to X5

For high integrity fabrications inspection required throughout the fabrication process:
Before welding (Before assemble & After assembly)During welding After welding

DUTIES BEFORE WELDING CHECK ACTION

Material In accordance with drawing/WPS>Identified and can be traced to a test certificate

In suitable condition (free from damage and contamination
WPSs Have been approved and are available to welders (and inspectors)
Welding equipment In suitable condition and calibrated as appropriate
Weld preparations In accordance with WPS (and/or drawings)
Welder qualifications Identification of welders qualified for each WPS to be used. All welder
qualification certificates are valid (in date)
Welding consumables
Those to be used are as specified by the WPSs are being stored/controlled as specified by the QC
Procedure
Joint fit-ups In accordance with WPS/drawings tack welds are to good workmanship standard and to
code/WPS
Weld faces are free from defects, contamination and damage
Preheat (if required) Minimum temperature is in accordance with WPS

DUTIES DURING WELDING (CHECK ACTION)

Site/field welding Ensure weather conditions are suitable/comply with Code (conditions will not
affect welding)
Welding process In accordance with WPS
Preheat (if required) Minimum temperature is being maintained in accordance with WPS
Inter-pass temperature Maximum temperature is in accordance with WPS

Welding consumables Inn accordance with WPS and being controlled as Procedure
Welding parameters Current, volts, travel speed are in accordance with WPS
Root run Visually acceptable to Code (before filling the joint) (for single sided welds)
Gouging/grinding By an approved method and to good workmanship standard
Interrun cleaning To good workmanship standard
Welder On the approval register/qualified for the WPS being used

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 DUTIES AFTER WELDINGCHECK ACTION

Weld identification Each weld is marked with the welder's identification and is identified in
accordance with drawing/weld map
Weld appearance Ensure welds are suitable for all NDT (profile, cleanness etc)- Visually inspect
welds and sentence in accordance with Code
Dimensional survey Check dimensions are in accordance with drawing/Code
Drawings Ensure any modifications are included on as-built drawings
NDT Ensure all NDT is complete and reports are available for records
Repairs Monitor in accordance with the Procedure
PWHT (if required) Monitor for compliance with Procedure (check chart record)
Pressure/load test (if required) Ensure test equipment is calibrated Monitor test to ensure
compliance with Procedure/Code. Ensure reports/records are available
Documentation Records Ensure all reports/records are completed and collated as required

Visual Inspection Ok  NDT Tie Up (Follow the ITP)  OK  QC

Visual Inspection Ok  NDT Tie Up (Follow the ITP)  Not OK  Reject  Repair 
Dimensional Survey  Visual Inspection OK  NDT  OK  QC

Terms and Definitions

What is a Weld?
A permanent union between materials caused by heat, and or pressure.

Two types of weld: 1-BUTT WELD 2-Fillet weld

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Completed weld: [Link] pass [Link] pass [Link] [Link]

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Soldering < 450°C
Brazing above 450°C Furnace
Compound weld; Combination of butt weld&fillet weld.

Leg Length (z); (Distance from root to toe.

Throat thickness (a); (Distance from root to face center.

A.T.T (a);(Distance from root to face center (With capping)

D.T.T (a); ( Distance from root to face center (without capping)

Depth of penetration (s)

Welded Join in Which

Homogeneous: Parent Metal and Weld Metal are same.
Heterogeneous: Parent Metal is same and Weld Metal is different
Example: A repair weld of a cast iron item performed with a nickel-based electrode.
Dissimilar/Transition: Two Different Parent Material

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 WELDING POSITIONS:

Weld Pass Arrangement:

1- Root Pass = 7010 or 7016

2- Hot Pass = 7018
3- Filling = 7018
4- Capping = 7018
Types of Bead:
1- Wider / Weaving Bead 2- Narrow / Stringer Bead

Stager Welding (See Welding Symbol)

z Leg Length (See Definition and Terminology)

Z Grade Material (See Lamellar Tearing in Weld Imperfection)

By: [Link] CSWIP 3.1 Page: 7/34

Fillet Welds:

Leg Length: Distance from Root to Toe

Throat Thickness: Distance from Root to Face
Design Throat Thickness: Distance from Root to Face
Actual Throat Thickness: DTT + Height

a = Design throat thickness

s = Depth of Penetration, Throat thickness
z = Leg length (min material thickness)

Drawing, Measure, Dimension Leg Length

Strength Throat Thickness
Sized: Leg Length, Actual Throat Thickness

Important:
A concave profile is preferred for joints subjected to fatigue loading
Deep penetration fillet welds from high heat input welding process MAG, FCAW & SAW etc

Technology formulas:
Heat input =Amp*volt/travel speed in sec*1000 (KJ/mm)
UTS =Max load*1000/area (N/mm2)
Elongation=FL-OL/OL *100 (%)
Formula:
DTT = Leg Length x 0.7
ATT = DTT + Excess Weld Metal
Leg Length = DTT x 1.4
Excess Weld Metal = ATT – DTT

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 Definitions:
Imperfection: Any deviation from the ideal weld.
Defect: An unacceptable imperfection.

Important:
Planner, 2-Dimension and Linear one thing means same.
Non-Planner & Volumetric are one thing

Planner (Linear) Non-Planner (Volumetric)

Lack of Side Wall Fusion Gas Pore
Root Concavity Porosity / Cluster Porosity
Inter Run Fusion Burn Through
Slag Inclusion Crater Pipe
Lamination Undercut

Classification of imperfections according to BS EN ISO 6520-1:

Group Type Cause /Location

1-Cracks Solidification (Hot) Impurities Centerline (Weld Metal)
HICC (Cold) Hydrogen Induce (Toe to HAZ)
Lamellar Tearing Lamination (Base Metal)
Weld Decay Bead to HAZ

2- Cavities Porosity (Cluster Porosity) Damp Weld Bead

Gas Pore ≤ 1.5mm Electrode Weld Bead
Blow Hole >1.5mm Un-cleaned Weld Bead
Parent Metal

3- Solid Slag (MMA,SAW) Poor Inter-run Cleaning

Silica (MAG)
Inclusion Tungsten (TIG) Dipping Tungsten / TIP in Weld Pool
Copper (MIG/MAG)

4-Lack of Lack of Side wall Fusion Slag Not Proper Cleaning

(Can be Surface High Travel Speed
Fusion Gas Inclusion
Breaking)
ARC Blow

Cold Lap / Over Lap Positional Welding Technique

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5- Surface & Poor Toe Blend Incorrect Welding Technique
Profile Arc Strike Poor Welding Technique
Incomplete Penetration Root Face too Large
Incomplete Root Penetration Root Gap too Small
Lack of root fusion Current Setting being too low
Linear Misalignment
Under-fill Incorrect Welding Technique
(incomplete Fillet Groove)
Spatter Damp Consumables
High Current
Undercut High Current / Poor Welding Technique
Slow Travel Speed
Root Concavity Excessive back purge pressure during TIG
welding
Excessive root bead grinding before the
application of the second pass
welding current too high for 2nd
pass overhead welding
root gap too large - excessive „weaving‟
Excess Penetration Too Large Root Gap / current HIGH
Burn through Too Small a root Face
Crater pipe (Mainly TIG) Incorrect Current Slope-out

6-Mechanical Hammer/Grinding marks Poor Work man ship

Damage

Polarity: DCEP  Reverse DCEN  Straight

Polarity: DCEP generally gives deeper penetration
Form Strip Cladding use DCEN
Lack of Side wall Fusion occur cause of ARC Blow
Highest Heat Input : PF & (Vertical Up)

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 Destructive tests can be divided into two groups:
• Those used to measure a mechanical property – quantitative tests
• Those used to assess the joint quality – qualitative tests

Material Properties:
Strength: Ability to Bear a Load before Fracture
Hardness: Resistance to PLASTIC (or PERMANENT) Deformation which Includes
‫س خ تی‬ Indentation, Scratching, or Marking

Toughness: Resistance to both ELASTIC and PLASTIC Deformation

Ductility: Extent of Permanent or Plastic Deformation that a Material Undergoes Before

Fracture. Two Measures of Ductility: % Elongation, % Reduction in Area
Brittleness:

Elasticity: Ability to Restore to Original Shape and Size after Removal of External Deforming
Loads
Plasticity
(Malleability)
Creep: Permanent Deformation and/or Failure of a Component when Subjected to High
Stresses at High Temperature i.e. Turbine Disk and Blades

Quantitative Test (Mechanical Properties) It has a units

Hardness Test
Test Name Unit Method Used Mainly for
Rockwell Scale Scale S is used Diamond Cone
Welding Procedure Test
(Scale C &B) for steels Steel Bar
Vickers Pyramid HV Diamond Pyramid used Welding Procedure Test
Brinell(tungsten ball) BHN Ball used Welding Procedure Test
Toughness Test/impact test/charpy v notch test
Test Name Unit Method Used Mainly for
Welding Procedure Test &
Charpy V Notch Joules Energy absorbed
Consumable Materials
Izod [Link] AWS Consumable Materials
Measure fracture toughness Welding Procedure Test &
CTOD(crack tip Mm
of material Materials
opening displacement
test)
Tensile Test (Stress, Strain (Ductility)
Stages of curve; [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]
Test Name Unit Method Used Mainly for
Transverse Tensile Tensile Strength of
N/mm2 or PSI Welding Procedure Test
Test Weldment Ductility
Short transverse %STRA Through Thickness Welding Procedure Test &
Tensile (In Z Direction) Ductility STRA% Material
All Weld Metal N/mm2 or PSI Tensile & Yield Strength
Welding Consumable Tests
Tensile(Test piece taken Elongation A % Ductility A%
in longitudinal
direction)

By: Shahid Ali (ss_aakash@[Link]) 0331-7497876 CSWIP 3.1 Page: 9/34

 Note:
Transverse Tensile Joint Test: Done on the request of Welding Inspector
Short Transverse Reduction Area Test: Done by Material Inspector
All Weld Metal Tensile Test: Done by Electrode Manufacture Company

Materials:
Austenitic Stainless steel :High coefficient of thermal expansion
Low thermal conductivity.

Carbon steel: Low coefficient of thermal expansion

High thermal conductivity.

Page: 10/34
 Qualitative: (Quality of Weld)
Test Name Observed Method Used Mainly for
Macrograph (Etching) Grain Size Structure Visual Welder Approval &
Procedure Test
Bend Test (Butt Weld) Show Lack of Inter Run Fusion Visual Welder Approval &
Root <12mm (root in tension) Cracking in the HAZ of Weld Procedure Test
Face<12mm (face in tension) Root Bend:
Side>12mm (side in Penetration, Weld Ductility
tension)give accurate indication
Bend Test Method:
1-Guided Bend (Must be Dia of Former 4t = 4 Time Thickness)
2- Wrap around Test (90o,120o,180o)

Fillet Weld Fracture Root Penetration and Fusion Visual Welder Approval &
T & Laps Joints Procedure Test
Neck Break Weld Soundness (Quality) & Visual Welder Approval &
Test(Reveal weld Fracture Appearance, Inter Run Procedure Test
metal defect) Fusion, Root Penetration
Butt Joints

APPEARANCE:

Brittle = Flat & Featureless, rough surface, Crystalline, Bright

Ductile = Rough and Torn (Cup & Cone Fracture, Sheer Lips)
Fatigue = Smooth, Beech mark, Cyclic loading

Codes and Standards

Important Codes:

BS EN 970 (17637) = Visual Inspection

BS EN 22553 = Symbols
AWS 2.4 = Symbols
BS EN 15607 = Types of joint
BS EN 7570 = For calibration
BS EN 287/ 9606 = Welder Approval
BS EN 288 /15614 = Welding procedures Approval
AWS D.1.1 = Structural Steel Welding Code
BSEN 15614-2= Welding procedure for aluminum and Alloy
BSEN 287-1=HLO45 Position
BS EN 499 = Welding Terminology & Definition
BS EN 2560 = MMA electrode

Welding process code:

MMA 111
SAW 121
MIG 131
MAG 135
TIG 141

By:Mr Zubair CSWIP 3.1 Page: 10/34

NON - DESTRUCTIVE TEST

Full Thickness Defects = Volumetric Defects

Four basic NDT methods

• Radiographic inspection (RT)
• Ultrasonic inspection (UT)
• Magnetic particle inspection (MT)
• Dye Penetrant inspection (PT)

1- Radiographic inspection (RT)

For all thickness
Not required cleaning
Both sided access
Only for defect (internal defect)
Not Good for Planner Defects
Density - relates to the degree of darkness
Radiographic Sensitivity = IQI -Image Quality Indicator
PENETRATING POWER
The determines the penetrating power of an X-ray the kilo-voltage
The determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray the type of isotope

DWSI(Double wall single image) When dia >100mm

DWDI(Double wall double image)When dia <100mm

GAMMA SOURCES
Typical Thickness Range Half Life
Iridium 192 10 to 50 mm (mostly used) 74.4 Days
Cobalt 60(Longest half > 50 mm 5.3 Years
life)
Cesium 137(Longest half < 10 mm 30-Year
life)

2- Ultrasonic inspection
(UT) Main Features:
 Good for Planner Defects
 Surface and sub-surface detection
 This detection method uses high frequency sound waves.
 For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be introduced between the probe and specimen
 Couplant minimize the Air Gap
 Not suitable for very thin joints <8mm
 One Side access
 Find > Depth, Location But Not find the Imperfection
 Mostly Use for SS Ferro Series-400
 Ultrasonic testing is more advantageous in detecting weld imperfections over other NDT
methods: Lack of sidewall fusion, Lamination

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3- Magnetic Particle testing (MT)
Main features:
 Applied on above 3mm Thickness
 Burmah Castrol strip is used
 For Surface Use AC Current / and For Sub-Surface DC Current

MPI is not use on A.S.S

 Surface and slight sub-surface detection

 Only Ferro-magnetic materials can be tested(magnetic)
 Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke (DC or AC), permanent magnet, prods (DC or AC)
and flexible cables.
 Yoke  Fixed Type Magnetic Field by Circular
 Prod  Separate Magnetic field Longitudinal
 Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area
 Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in the case of fluorescent particles under
UV-A light a green/yellow indication
 No indication of defects depths
 Only suitable for linear defects
 A surface breaking crack will be detected during a magnetic particle inspection if it is at right
angles to the lines of flux
 MT is applied when temperature below 650℃
Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
 Clean area to be tested
 Apply contrast paint
 Apply magnetisms to the component
 Apply Ferro-magnetic ink to the component during magnetizing
 Interpret the test area
 Post clean and de-magnetize if required

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4- Penetrant Testing (PT)
Main features:
PT is applied when temp 5 to 60℃
 Detection of surface breaking defects only.
 This test method uses the forces of capillary action
 Applicable on any material type, as long they are non porous.

Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld

 Step-1> Pre-Cleaning > Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent
 Step-2> Apply penetrant
 After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the components surface for approximately
15-20 minutes (dwell time).
 The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by capillary action.
 Step-3 > Clean off penetrant
 the penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time (dwell time).
 Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any defects present
 Step-4> Apply developer
 After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of developer is applied. The developer
acts as a contrast against the penetrant and allows for reverse capillary action to take place.
 Step-5> Inspection / development time
 Inspection should take place immediately after the developer has been applied.
 Any defects present will show as a bleed out during development time.
 After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is generally required.

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 Welding Stages:
1-Solid State Friction Welding Plasticity
2-Solidering Liquid Filler Material Liquid Soldering > 450°C
Base Metal Not Melted Brazing upto 450°C Furnace
3- Liquid State Heat Source
i) Chemical (Oxy Fuel Welding / Cutting)
ii) Electrical (Arc & Resistance)
ARC Resistance
Consumable / Non Consumable Spot & Seam Welding
SMAW GTAW
GMAW
SAW
FOR: SMAW, GMAW, SAW
SMAW DC+ AC DC- High
Deposition
GMAW
SAW
LOF Spatter
LOP Undercut Deep Penetration /
Poor Toe Ampere Low to High  Ex Penetraion Contour Bead
Slag BT
Amp

Spatter on Bead
If Amp Low :
Poor starting, Slag inclusions, Weld bead contour too high, Lack of fusion/penetration
If Amp High :
Spatter, Excess penetration, Undercut, Burn-through

Arc Volt / Length Low to High 


Wider Bead
Arc Voltage
Arc Length
Spatter on Sides of Bead
Arc length = arc voltage

If Arc Length Low:

Arc can be extinguished, “stubbing” Ex Penetration, BT
If Arc Length High:
Spatter, Porosity, Excess penetration, Undercut, LOP, LOF

Travel Speed Slow to High  Thin Bead

Travel Speed

If Travel Speed is Low: Slow Speed =

Wide weld bead contour, Excess penetration, Burn-through Deep Penetration
If Travel Speed is Too High:
Lack of root fusion, incomplete root penetration, undercut, Poor bead profile, difficult slag removal

By:Mr Zubair CSWIP 3.1 Page: 14/34

 MMA (SMAW)
Slag Inclusions
Most Defects Arc Strikes
Spatter
Arc Temperature 6000oC
Constant Current Drooping
Polarities 1-DC +ve(for deep penetration),
2-DC-ve(for reduce penetration
3- AC(to prevent arc blow)

OCV: AC 50-90 Volts

Volt & Current (OPEN CURCUIT
VOLTAGE)
OCV: DC 20-50Volts
Amp: 100 ~ 140
Consumable Electrode Length: 350mm to 450mm
Electrode & Wires Diameter: 2.5 – 6mm
Cellulosic
Electrode,
Rutile
Gases, Flux
Basic (Low Hydrogen)
Advantages Shop and Site Use
Positional
All Position
Capabilities

MMA Electrode: (AWS 5.1) – 60XX (AWS 5.5) – 70XX BS EN 2560

CELLULOSIC(High RUTILE/Heavy Rutile BASIC (LOW HYDROGEN)

hydrogen)
0,1 (Tin Pack) 2,3/4 (Carton Pack) 5,6,8 (Vacuum Pack)
H = (80% to 90%) H = (25% to 30%) H = (<5%)
Not Use for: Drying If Not use 4-Hrs then return to Oven and
High Strength, High Pressure Drying Temp: Re-Backing
High Thickness 120 oC-150oC
HICC crack occur Baking:
Cannot In oven 2 hours at 350°C
backed After baking:
Fast Welding without risk of Maintain in oven at 120-150°C
LOP,LOF Use from quivers at 75°C
For low
Cross Country Pipeline pressure pipe 3-Time Re-Backing Limits
Suitable for vertical down work
Horizontal
Cannot backed and vertical
Deep Penetration General Purpose High Strength, High Pressure
Greater Arc High Thickness
Greater Shield Volume Ductility
Required Pre-Heat Superior Mechanical properties
For Stove Pipe (Welding) Good weld metal toughness at -50°C
Root Pass,
For Low Alloy Steel (HSLA)Pre-heat
Required
Cellulose Titania Calcium Compound

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 Electrode: Electrode Core Wire is mainly Riming Steel:-
Silicon is mainly added as a de-oxidizing agent (in the form of Ferro Silicate) which remove oxygen
from the weld metal by forming the oxide silica.
Manganese additions of up to 1.6% will improve the strength and toughness of steel.

Electrode Efficency = Mass of Weld Metal Deposit

Mass of Core Wire Melting

Important Points:

.If heat input/temp low then( High hardness) toughness low.

.If heat input/temp High then(low hardness) high toughness.

Essantial variable:Something that effect mechanical property

(welding process,material type,PWHT)
Non Essantial variable: Something that Cannot effect mechanical property
(Welding position).

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 POWER SOURCE:
Transformer:
Changes mains supply voltage to a voltage suitable for welding. Has no moving parts and is often
termed static plant. (Step Up) AC  AC (Step Down)
Rectifier:
Changes AC  DC
. Generator:
Produces welding current as DC. The generator consists of an armature rotating in a magnetic field,
the armature must be rotated at a constant speed either by a motor unit or, in the absence of electrical
power, by an internal combustion engine.
Inverter:
An inverter changes DC  AC at a higher frequency.

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 TIG (GTAW)
Tungsten Inclusions(slope In)
Crater pipes (bad weld finish technique i.e. slope out)
Most Defects
Oxidation of S/S weld bead, or root by poor gas cover
Root concavity (excess purge pressure in pipe)
Arc Temperature 3200/3270oC Melting Temp 3370oC
Constant Current Drooping
Polarities DC –ve for steels
AC for Aluminum
Amp: 120 ~ 160
Volt & Current
Voltage: 9 – 12
Consumable Filler Wire Diameter:0.6 – 1.6mm
Electrode & Wires Filler Wire Length: 1-Meter
Filler wires, Shielding gases are Consumable and
Tungsten electrodes (non-consumable).
Tungsten Electrode: (Non-Consumable)
1- Cerium(ORANGE) (DC-ve)for Nickle and its alloy

2- Thoriated electrode(RED)(for SS and this is Radioactive

Due to this reason used 3-Lanthanated electode(GOLD) For SS

4-Zirconated electrode(BROWN)( (for Aluminum)

Electrode,
Argon (Ar) Inert
Gases, Flux
Suitable for welding Carbon Steel, Stainless steel, Aluminium and
magnesium
Lower cost, lower flow rates
More suitable for thinner materials and positional welding

Helium Argon mixes

Suitable for welding carbon steel, stainless steel, Copper, aluminium and
magnesium
High cost, high flow rates
More suitable for thicker materials and materials of high thermal
conductivity.

Important:
Nitrogen may be added for welding copper
Hydrogen added (up to 5%) for the welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels
and nickel alloys
High Quality Welds
Advantages Low H2 process
Positional
All Position
Capabilities

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 1
Type and Vertex Angle:
2
 If Vertex Angle increase (2) Increase the Penetration
 If Vertex Angle Decrease (1) Bead Width Increase

Vertex angle:
Use on DC-ve (Electrode tip ground)

Chamfered:
When welding aluminium with AC current, the tungsten end is chamfered and forms a ball end.

Tungsten Inclusion Slope

Up/Out (Device Name)
May be caused by Thermal Shock of heating to fast and small fragments break off and enter the weld
pool, so a “slope up” device is normally fitted to prevent this could be caused by touch down also.
Most TIG sets these days have slope-up devices that brings the current to the set level over a short
period of time so the tungsten is heated more slowly and gently

A Tungsten Inclusion always shows up as bright white on a radiograph (RT)

Polarity Influence – Cathodic cleaning effect

Use AC Current in TIG due to remove Oxide Layer, Ideal for Aluminium where oxides rapidly
develop in the Weld Bead.

 Cathodic cleaning is used to remove Oxides.

 Post Flow function is used to remove tungsten electrode contamination.
Pulse current is used in TIG for (electron cleaning effect and penetration.).
Initiation method is used in TIG for (Lift arc&high frequency).
 Fusibe insert is used in (TIG).
 Fusible insert is used for (As a pre-placed filer material)
 (Give controlled Root penetration)
MIG/MAG (GMAW)
Lack of Fusion ,Porosity, Spatter,
Most Defects Copper Inclusion
Silica Inclusion

Constant Voltage Flat

Polarities DC+ve for ALL
Consumable Diameter: 0.6 – 1.6mm
Electrode & Wires Electrode Wire
Inert Gas: Argon, Oxygen, Helium
Electrode,
Gases, Flux Helium for Copper
Active Gas: CO2
High Productivity
Advantages
Easily Automated
Dip: All Position
Positional
Spray:
Capabilities
Flat/Horizontal
Pulse: All Position

Shielding Gases:

1- Inert Gases used are Argon and Helium for all non-ferrous alloys (Al, Cu, Ni)
2- Active gases used are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

MIG Process  For Nickel Alloy, Aluminum use 100% Argon for Good Penetration

Carbon steel CO2 Ar+(5-20)%CO2

Stainless steel Ar+2%O2
Aluminium, Nickel Alloy Ar
C-Mn & low Alloy steels Ar + 20% CO2

By: [Link] CSWIP 3.1 Page: 18/34

 Important:
Wire speed directly relate to burn of rate.
Burn of rate directly relate to current.
Cast and helix are quality of welding of wires.

Transfer Modes:

DIP MODE SPRAY MODE PULSE MODE GLOUBLAR MODE

(MAG) (MIG) (MIG/MAG) (MAG/FCAW)
CO� Argon
Contact between No Contact between Both dip and spray Between dip and spray
parent metal and weld parent metal and weld transfer in this mode. transfer.
metal. metal.

Then short circuiting.

Spatter appears. No spatter Low spatter Multiple droplet
Frequency in cycle
To control the spatter Pinch effect appear time Non Desired
Inductance is used (a droplet detach from
the tip of wire) Irregular metal transfer
All position Flat/horizontal All position Only flat position
(LOW) position ( Moderate) Medium
heat input (High) heat input heat input
current input current current
voltage current voltage voltage
deposition rate voltage deposition rate deposition rate
deposition rate
No distortion Distortion Not widely used in UK

Lack of side wall No Lack of side wall

fusion appear fusion appear

For thin material For thick material Medium thickness 3-6mm

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(SAW )Submerged Arc Welding
Shrinkage :Solidification Crack
Slag Inclusion
Most Defects
Must be Control: Penetration, Arc Blow

Drooping / constant current >1000amp

Polarities Flat / constant voltage <1000amp
1-DC +ve(for deep penetration)
2-DC-ve(for reduce penetration
3- AC(to prevent arc blow)

Welding wires:
Consumable i) carbon and low alloy wires are copper coated
Electrode & ii) stainless steel wires are not coated
Wires
Diameter: 1.6 – 6mm
Electrode, Fused & Agglomerated Fluxes:
Gases, Flux
Low Weld Metal
Advantages Costs No Visible Arc
Light
Flat & Horizontal Only
Positional
Weld line must be regular (straight or circumferential seams only) with
Capabilities
accurate fit-up

Fused (Acid Type) Agglomerated (Basic Type)

Flaky & Sharp Appearance Dull & Granulated appearance
For thin material For thick material
Low weld quality High weld quality
Recycleable No recycleable
Smooth weld profile They absorb moisture.
Non Hygroscopic Hygroscopic
Non moisture pick up Easy slag removal
Not addition of alloy Addition of alloys
CVF(constant voltage flat) Porosity
<1000amp CCD(constant
High temp used current drooping)
>1000amp
Low temp used
Medium carbon steel

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Depth of flux
 Depth of flux layer influence the appearance of weld
 Usually, depth of flux is 25-30 mm
 If flux layer is to deep the arc is too confined, result is a rough rope-like appearing weld
 If flux layer is to deep the gases cannot escape & the surface of molten weld metal becomes
irregularly distorted
 If flux layer is too shallow, flashing and spattering will occur, give a poor appearance and porous
weld
Twin wire SAW welding
• two electrodes are feed into the same weld pool
• wire diameter usually 1,6 to 3,2 mm
• electrodes are connected to a single power source & a single arc is established
• normally operate with DCEP
• offers increased deposition rate by up to 80% compared to single wire SAW

Tandem arc SAW process (Single Pool)

• usually DCEP on lead and AC on trail to reduce arc blow
• requires two separate power sources
• the electrodes are active in the same puddle BUT there are 2 separate arcs
• increased deposition rate by up to 100% compared with single wire SAW

Tandem(Butt & Fillets) Skewed (Avoids Burn Through) Side By Side (Cladding)
(Deep Penetration) (Moderate Penetration) (Shallow)

Twin Wire System: (70% ~ 80%) There are two wires in a Single holder
Tandem (Hot Wire) (100%) Two separate Wire and Separate Power Source (AC, DSEP)
Cold Wire (70% ~ 80%) One is Filler Wire one is Source like TIG, Produce Less
Penetration.
Strip Cladding DC-ve

SAW with Metal powder addition

• Increased deposition rates up to 70%; increased welding speed

• gives smooth fusion, improved bead appearance, reduced penetration and dilution from parent
metal & higher impact strength
• metal powders can modify chemical composition of final weld deposit
• does not increase risk of cracking
• do not require additional arc energy
• metal powder can be added ahead or directly into the weld pool

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 Weld ability of Steels
Microstructure: (Metallography)
1- Grainsite Fine Course
2- Austenite Hard Material
3- Ferrite Soft Material
4-Cementite Hard Material
5-Pearlite Better Toughness Material (Combination of Ferrite & Cementite)
6-Martensite (Euloctoid) Hard & Brittle (Quick Broken)

Steels are classified into groups as follows:

1- Plain Carbon Steels
2- Alloy Steels

Plain Carbon Steels

Types of Carbon Steel Properties Controlled by Carbon
Low Carbon Steel <0.3 % Carbon (High Ductility) Vehicles Sheet Bodies
Medium Carbon Steel >0.3 % Carbon ~ < 0.6 % (T-Iron, Guarder)
High Carbon Steel >0.6 % Carbon ~ <1.4 % (Making Tools)
Steel: Chromium Min 11.5%

Plain carbon steels contain only Iron & Carbon as main alloying elements,
But traces of Mn, Si, Al, S & P may also be present.

Martensite Stainless Steel: <14% Chromium (400-Series Magnetic Properties)

Ferritic Stainless Steel: > 14% ~ 27% Chromium (400-Series Magnetic
Properties) Austenitic Stainless Steel: Cr: 18%, Ni:8%, (300-Series Non-Magnetic
Properties)

Type of Alloy Steels:

Alloy is combination of two or more metals
Properties Control by Alloying Elements other then Carbon
Low Alloy: <7% Alloying Addition  More Strength
High Alloy: >7% Alloying Addition

Alloy Steels are considered the type of steels that mainly contain extra alloying elements other
than Iron & Carbon

Choice of Welding Process:

Material Type:
Steel  All Process
Reactive Material (Aluminum, Titanium)  TIG/MIG
Copper Base Alloys mainly  TIG/MIG
Nickel Base Alloys  All Process for most Alloy

Alloying elements and their effects

Aluminium deoxidize, Grain refiner, <0.008% deoxidizer + toughness
Chromium Corrosion resistance
Carbon - increase hardness & strength Strength < 0.25%
(HAZ Hardness, Poor Weld ability, Extra Effort)
Manganese - deoxidize & increase strength and toughness
(Low Temp Range increase Ductility)
Molybdenum - 1% is for creep resistance (increase hardness & strength)

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Calcium - provide shielding & form slag
Potassium - stabilize the arc & form slag
Silicon - <0.3% deoxidizer & form slag
Sodium - stabilize arc & form slag
Titanium - Grain refiner, used as a micro-alloying element (strength and toughness)
Sulphur Residual element (can cause hot shortness)
Phosphorus Residual element (Can Cause Cold Shortness)
Niobium Grain refiner, used as a micro-alloying element (strength and toughness)

Cracks Type:
 HICC (Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracks)
 Solidification Cracks
 Lamellar Tearing
 Weld Decay

HICC (Hydrogen Induced Cold

Cracks)(Delayed Cracks, Cold Cracks)
48 to 72 hours
1-Why Occur 1. Hydrogen level > 15ml/100g of weld metal deposited
2. Stress > 0.5 of the yield stress
3. Temperature < 300°C
4. Susceptible microstructure > 400Hv hardness
( Main element phosphours/ Hydrogen)
2-How to To be Control Above Factors
Prevent  Ensure a low Hydrogen welding Process is used.(TIG)
 Apply pre heat and maintain a specific inter pass temperature.
3-When Occur A combination of four factors is necessary to cause HAZ hydrogen cracking
4-Where Occur Toe , Under bead

Solidification Cracks (Hot Crack,center Line crack,weld metal crack)

1-Why Occur Impurities of Sulphur and Phosphorus
2-How to  Select the Material that have not Sulphur and Phosphorus
Prevent  Not use Hi-Dilution Process (TIG for thin Material, SAW)
 Use low Hydrogen Electrode that has Manganese.
 Joint Preparation not is deep and narrow.
 use Clean Steel, Add Manganese in Electrode
3-When Occur During Solidification
4-Where Occur Center Line, Longitudinal

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Lamellar Tearing
1-Why Occur Lamination step like appearance due to the solid inclusions in the parent material
(e.g. sulphides and silicates)

2-How to Use Material that has not Laminations.

Prevent  Use clean steel with guaranteed through-thickness properties (Z grade).
 A combination of joint design, restraint control and welding sequence to
minimize the risk of cracking.

If it has been confirmed that the Material has Lamination then Perform the
STRA (short transverse reduction in area) Test by (Trough Thickness
Ductility) and Check the Material Ductility Grade
Note:
Z Grade Material is called a Material Ductility has 20% or over the 20%.
( Buttering is improved ductility)
4-Where Near HAZ
Occur

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Weld Decay (only A.S.S material) ( inter granular crack, knife line attack)
1-Why  Structure sensitive to Corrosion attack
Occur  Sensitization in the heat-affected zone during the welding operation.
 Weld decay is caused by the formation of Chromium as a compound with carbon.
2-How to  Use Low Carbon Grade Steel Material instead of 304,316 use 304L 316L
Prevent  Use stabilized grades alloyed with titanium (for example type 321) or niobium (for
example type 347). Titanium and niobium are strong carbide- formers. They
react with the carbon to form the corresponding carbides thereby preventing
chromium depletion.
 A post weld heat treatment may also be of benefit in minimizing the risk of weld
decay, this heat treatment called Solution treatment over 1050 °C to 1100°C
 Solution Heat Treatment is not regularly employed (Practically Difficult) on
stainless steel pipe spools the reason of High risk of distortion.

3-When  When the heat affected zone (HAZ) temperature range is between 550-850°C this
Occur compound is formed
4-Where Near HAZ (Service failure problem, cause by corrosion, may be long time in service)
Occur

Thermal Cutting Process

Plasma Cutting: For Stainless Steel
Oxy Fuel Cutting Carbon and low alloy steels (i.e CS,MS Alloys) 3200oC

Air-arc gouging features

 Operate ONLY on DCEP
 Special gouging copper coated carbon electrode
 Can be used on carbon and low alloy steels, austenitic stainless steels and non-ferrous materials
 Requires CLEAN/DRY compressed air supply

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 WELDING SYMBOLS

BS EN 22553 = Symbols
OR
Doted Line = Hidden Line
Solid Line = Arrow Line

Doted Line = Other Side

Solid Line = Arrow Side
Cross Section dimention ( Left of the symbol)
Linear dimention ( Right of the symbol)

BS EN Fillet Weld:
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat thickness
z = Leg length (min material thickness)

BS EN Butt Weld:
‘S’ indicates the depth of penetration

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AWS A2.4 Welding Symbols

• In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length

• In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the depth of the joint preparation

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 WELDER QUALIFICATION

Welding Procedure Qualification

 The welding engineer writes qualified Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) for production
Welding.
Production welding conditions must remain within the range of qualification allowed by the
WPQR

SUMMARY OF DESIGNATIONS:

pWPS: Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification (Before procedure approval)

Welding Engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure Specification (pWPS) for each test weld
to be made
A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the pWPS
A welding inspector records all the welding conditions used for the test weld (referred to as the „as- run‟
conditions)
An Independent Examiner/ Examining Body/ Third Party inspector may be requested to monitor the
qualification process
The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods specified by the EN ISO
Standard - Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT
Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (tensile, bend, macro)
The Application Standard, or Client, may require additional tests such as impact tests, hardness tests
(and for some materials - corrosion tests)

A Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR) is prepared giving details of: -

The welding conditions used for the test weld
Results of the NDT
Results of the destructive tests
The welding conditions that the test weld allows for production welding
The Third Party may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true record

Once the content of the procedure is approved the next stage is to approve the welders to the
approved procedure.

WPS: Welding Procedure Specification

(After procedure approval)
An approved WPS should be available covering the range of qualification required for the
welder approval.

(Welding procedure Qualification record)

A welders test know as a Welders Qualification Test (WQT).

 The welder qualifies in accordance with an approved WPS

 A welding inspector monitors the welding to make sure that the welder uses the conditions
specified by the WPS
 EN Welding Standard states that an Independent Examiner, Examining Body or Third Party
Inspector may be required to monitor the qualification process
 The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the methods specified by the EN Standard -
Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT
 The test weld may need to be destructively tested - for certain materials and/or welding processes
specified by the EN Standard or the Client Specification

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 A Welder‟s Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the conditions used for the test weld
and the range of qualification allowed by the EN Standard for production welding
 The Qualification Certificate is usually endorsed by a Third Party Inspector as a true record of
the test

Object of a welding procedure test

To give maximum confidence that the welds mechanical and metallurgical properties meet the
requirements of the applicable code/specification.
Each welding procedure will show a range to which the procedure is approved (extent of approval)
If a customer queries the approval evidence can be supplied to prove its validity

Object of a welding qualification test:

To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the quality requirements of the approved
procedure (WPS).
The test weld should be carried out on the same material and same conditions as for the production
welds.
The qualification shall remain valid for 2 years provided there is certified confirmation of
welding to the WPS in that time.
A Welder‟s Qualification Certificate automatically expires if the welder has not used
the welding process for 6 months or longer.

Heat Treatment (Pre-Heat)

Heat Treatment (Improve Mechanical Properties)

Annealing, Normalizing, Quenching = 900 to920°C

Tempering = 550°C ~700°C

(Soft and Ductile) – Not Hard and Brittle

As compare to Annealing (Low Soft & Low Ductile) – Not Hard and Brittle

Hard and Brittle

Toughness Improves (Less Brittleness)

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 Pre-Heat
Definitions
Pre-Heat temperature is the temperature of the work-piece in the weld zone immediately before any
welding operation (including tack welding!) Normally expressed as a minimum Interpass
temperature:

Minimum interpass temperature = Preheat temperature

Why Pre-heat? Pre-Heat (Parameters)

 Improve Mechanical Structure
 Control the expansion and contraction rate. Pre-Heat Temperatur 50 to 250°C
 Improve Overall Grain Size.
 Remove Moisture
 Atmosphere Contamination

Pre-heat (Procedure) Pre-Heat Application

 Heat each side of joint Furnace
 Measure temp 2 mins after heat removal Electrical elements
 Always best to heat complete component rather than Gas burners
local if possible to avoid distortion Radiant gas heaters
 Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due to Induction heating
different combined thicknesses and chill effect factors. Rapid heating (mins not hours);

Point of Measurement
t < 50 mm A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm
the temperature shall be measured on the surface of the work-piece facing the
welder t > 50mm A = 75mm minimum
Allow 2 min per every 25 mm of parent metal thickness for temperature equalisation

Heating Temperature Control

Tempilsticks (Crayons) Inaccurate, Cheap, Easy to Use
Pyrometers Laser Gun, High Temp, Accurate, Calibration
Thermocouples Wide Range, Calibration
Thermistors used when high sensitivity is required gives the actual
Digital thermometer temperature can be used up to 999°C, Calibration

Important:
 Necessary to Preheating Cruciform Joints and Combined Material Thickness.
 Preheating decreases hardness.
 Welding a steel plate with a CEV(carbon equilant value) of 0.45 would require
preheating to prevent hardening in the HAZ.
 Preheating and Interpass heating are used primarily for Reducing hydrogen content
of weld preparation prior to welding.
 The Main Reason for Preheating Steels is to Reduce the Risk of Hydrogen Cracking.
 The recommended position for checking preheat temperature, and preheat
maintenance temperature, on butt weld is 75mm from the bevel edge.
 Preheat is not necessary when the plates is vaccume packed

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Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) = 550°C ~ 750°C
Stress Relives C-Mn Temp = 600°C

Post Hydrogen Release

Temperature: Approximately 250°C hold
up to 3 hours
Cooling: Slow cool in air
Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat / interpass
temperature after completion of welding for
2 to 3 hours.

PWHT Procedures - Basic Requirements

Maximum Heating Rate: Usually from

300 or 400°C - need to avoid large
temperature gradients that may cause
distortion/cracking
Maximum rate depends on thickness but typically up to ~ 60-200°C/h
„Soak‟ Temperature depends on steel type - usually specified by Code (~700 to ~760 °C )

Minimum ‘Soak’ Time

Need to make sure and whole item/full thickness reaches specified temp.
Codes typically specify 1h per 25mm related to max. joint thickness

Maximum Cooling Rate

usually down to 400 or 300°C - for same reasons as controlled heating rate

Recommendations
 Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions
 Control soak time to equalise temperatures
 Control temperature gradients - NO direct flame impingement!
 Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling
 Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation

During Cooling or Losing Heat is called Columnar Growth

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Distortion: Residual Stress:

Residual Stress lead to Distortion Factors which affect distortion

they lead to distortion Parent material properties
they affect dimensional stability of the Amount of restrain
welded assembly Joint design
they enhance the risk of brittle fracture Fit-up
they can facilitate certain types of corrosion Welding sequence (Number of passes, Heat
input, Travel speed)
Distortion Preventions By: Restraint:

Pre-setting or Pre-setting of fillet or Butt joint to prevent angular distortion.

Offsetting
Pre-bending using strong backs and wedges
Clamping and Control Plate moving by the clamp or Jig.
jigging: Main disadvantage of jigging is high restraint and high levels of residual stresses.
Restraint i) Use of welding jigs. ii) use of flexible clamps
techniques iii) use of strongbacks with wedges iv)use of fully welded strongbacks
Design Consider weld placement
Reduce weld metal volume and/or number of runs
By forming the plate
By use of rolled or extruded sections
use of balanced welding

fabrication Tack weld straight through to end of joint

techniques Tack weld one end, then use back-step technique for tacking the rest of the
joint
Tack weld the centre, then complete the tack welding by the back-step
technique
Welding Back-step welding
procedure Skip welding
Sequence welding
PWHT
Minimum number
of runs

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 Weld Repairs
Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific areas:
 Production repairs
 In service repairs

Production repairs
In the event of repair, it is required:
 Authorization and procedure for repair
 Removal of material and preparation for repair
 Monitoring of repair Weld
 Testing of repair - visual and NDT

Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need to be fulfilled:

 If the defect is surface breaking and has occurred at the fusion face the problem could be cracking
or lack of sidewall fusion.
 If the defect is found to be cracking the cause may be associated with the material or the welding
procedure
 If the defect is lack of sidewall fusion this can be apportioned to the lack of skill of the welder.
 In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, MPI or DYE-PEN may be used to gauge
the length of the defect and U/T inspection used to gauge the depth.

In service repairs
Can be of a very complex nature, as the component is very likely to be in a different position
and condition than it was during production
It may also have been in contact with toxic, or combustible fluids hence a permit to work wilneed
to be sought prior to any work being carried out
The repair welding procedure may look very different to the original production proceduredue to
changes in these elements.

Other factors to be taken into consideration:

 Effect of heat on any surrounding areas of the component i.e. electrical components, or materials
that may become damaged by the repair procedure.
 This may also include difficulty in carrying out any required pre or post welding heat treatments
and a possible restriction of access to the area to be repaired.
 For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must also take place on site and without a shut
down of operations, which may bring other elements that need to be considered.
 Cost of weld metal deposited during a weld joint repair can reach up to 10 times the original weld
metal cost!

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List of Imperfection & Defects:-
Sr# Face (Pipe & Plate) Root (Pipe & Plate)
1 Lack of Side Wall Fusion Lack of Root Fusion
2 Lack of Inter Run Fusion(B/W Double Bead) Lack of Root Penetration
3 Undercut Undercut
4 Under Fill, Incomplete Groove Root Concavity
5 Excess Weld Metal Height Excess Root Penetration
6 Linear Misalignment Linear Misalignment
7 Arc Strike Arc Strike
8 Spatter Spatter
9 Cluster Porosity Burn Through
10 Slag Slag
11 Cracks Cracks
12 Gas Pore Gas Pore
13 Crater Pipe Crater Pipe
14 Mechanical Damage Mechanical Damage
16 Angular Distortion (Only in Plate)
17 Tack Weld (Tacking / Earth)
Report Writing:
Notes: Notes:
Sr# Face (Pipe & Plate) Root (Pipe & Plate)
1 All Dimension are in mm All Dimension are in mm
2 Poor Toe Blend Poor Toe Blend
3 Weld Width Max= Min= Root Penetration Max= Min=
4 Cap Height Max= Min= Root Width Max= Min=
5 Linear Misalignment Linear Misalignment
6 Angular Distortion(only in plate)

Defect (Placement) and Observe Criteria

Defects: Where Observe

But Not in Our Course
Cracks (Pipe, Plate, Macro)
if Present Write Non Observe and Rejected
Lack of Side Wall Fusion Pipe & Plate (Face), Macro)
Lack of Inter run Fusion Pipe & Plate Face Double Bead, Macro
Lack of Root Fusion Pipe & Plate Root, Macro

Measurement
1- Linear Misalignment (Check By Multi-Purpose Gauge)
2- Angular Distortion (Scale & Gauge) Occur Only in Plate Check Root Side & Write Face Side
3- Plate/pipe (Hi-Lo) Linear misalignment is measured from the lowest plate to the highest point.
4- Angular misalignment is measured in degrees only in Pipe
Drawing:
 Spatter draw as Clouded if present on Base Metal
 Gas Pore / Spatter Show as Single Line if present on Weld Bead
 Lot of Spatter to be clean
 2-Imprefaction are represent in a Single Line (Gas Pore / Spatter)
 Focus on Major Defect: Undercut / Side Wall Fusion

On Face Side  If Under-fill is present on the Weld Height then Min = 0

On Root Side  If Lack of Root Penetration / Concavity is present on Root Side Root Height Min=0

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 PRACTICAL (MACRO)

MACRO MICRO
detecting weld defects measuring grain size
weld imperfections phase, constituents, precipitates
assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold
cracking and corrosion sensitivity

Visual examination for defects Visual examination for defects & grain structure
Cut transverse from the weld Cut transverse from a weld
Ground & polished P400 grit paper Ground & polished P1200 grit paper, 1µm paste
Acid etch using 5-10% nitric acid Acid etch using 1-5% nitric acid solution
solution Wash and dry
Wash and dry Visual evaluation under 100-1000x magnification
Visual evaluation under X2 – X5
Magnification
Sample Cutting MountingGrindingPolishingEtching (Chemical)

List of Imperfection & Defects observe in MACRO:-

1- Regular Shape i.e Gas Pore, Porosity etc

2- Irregular Shape i.e Slag
3- Lack of Side Wall Fusion
4- Lack of Inter run Fusion
5- Lack of Root Penetration [Single V Joint]
6- Lack of Penetration  We can see only in Fillet Weld and Double V (Not in CSWIP Exam)
7- Root Concavity
8- Under fill - Weld Metal is below of Parent Metal
9- Laminations Occur only on Parent Metal
10- Lap It is Steel Manufacturing Defects
11- over Lap
12- Mechanical Damage  Spatter (Bead & Parent Metal) Tack Weld/Arc Strike(Parent Metal)

Note:
First must be Check Welding Process:
We observe these three defects (Lamination, Lap and over Lap) only in MACRO not Plate & Pipe.

Clouded
Where Placed
Shape
Dimension

Under fill  Weld Bead below of Base Metal Surface

Macro  Lap, Overlap, Lamination

Macro and Micro Visual Inspection

Width to Depth Ratio: Must be 2:1

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