MIT Art Design and Technology University

MIT School of Computing, Pune

Computer Network

Class - S.Y. (SEM-II), ALL

AY 2024-2025 SEM-II
 Syllabus: Unit 1
9 Hours
UNIT – I INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION
Main Topic-1: Introduction to data communication, Networks: Network Hardware, Network Software,
Topology-Point to Point ,Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring, Tree, Hybrid
Main Topic-2: Internet: Internet history, standards and administration, Protocols & Standards, RFCs
Main Topic-3: OSI Model, TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Functions of the layers, Comparison of the OSI and
TCP/IP reference model, Analog & Digital Signals, Transmission Impairments.

Pedagogy ICT Teaching / Power Point Presentation and Videos

Self-study / Do it yourself : To setup LAN of 4 computers Wired and Wireless
Experiential Learning Topics: Analyze RFCs for any 5 protocols given in the syllabus using
wireshark.
Case Study / PBL - Project Based Learning: Interface wired and wireless devices to
computer and monitor them remotely.
 Course Outcomes

• After completion of the course students are able to:

1. Apply the fundamentals of data communication & networking in real life

Applications.

2. Demonstrate various design issues of data link layer.

3. Analyze different routing protocols in network layer & transport layer.

4. Explore various industrial protocols.

 Unit I - Syllabus
• Unit I – Introduction to Data Communication 09 hours

• Main Topic-1: Introduction to data communication, Networks: Network

Hardware, Network
• Software
• Main Topic-2: Internet: Internet history standards and administration, Protocols
& Standards, RFCs
• Main Topic-3: OSI Model, TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Comparison of the OSI and
TCP/IP reference model, Analog & Digital Signals, Transmission Impairments.
Course Outcome of Unit 1
• After completion of the course students are able to:

CO1: Apply the fundamentals of data communication & networking in

real life applications.

5
Computer Network
A computer network is a group of computers/devices(Nodes)
that use a set of common communication protocols over digital
interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on
or provided by the network nodes.
The nodes of a computer network may include personal
computers, servers, networking hardware, or other specialised or
general-purpose hosts.
The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad
spectrum of telecommunication network technologies, based on
physically wired, optical, and wireless technologies.
A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging
information over a network. physically wired, optical, and
wireless
Network Diagram
Wired Network PC Firewall The Internet

Fiber Optic Network Cable

Router
Switch

Server Other LANS

Wireless Network
Topic: Introduction to data communication

• Data and data communication

• Fundamental characteristic of Data communication
• Delivery
• Accuracy
• Jitter
• Timeliness
• Components of data communication

8
Topic: Introduction to data communication

Data Representation:
• TEXT
• Numbers
• Images
• Audio
• Video

9
 Introduction to data communication : Data Flow

Data flow

10
Data Flow
• Simplex (one way street)
• The communication is unidirectional
• Only one device on a link can transmit; the other can only receive
• Use the entire capacity of the channel to send data
• Example: Keyboards, Monitors

Dat
a
Data Flow
• Half-Duplex (one-lane with two-directional traffic)
• Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
• The entire capacity of a channel is taken over by the transmitting device
• Example: Walkie-talkies

Dat
a

Dat
a
Data Flow
• Full-Duplex (Duplex) (two-way street)
• Both stations can transmit and receive at same time
• Signals going in either direction sharing the capacity of the link
• Sharing can occur in two ways:
• Link has two physically separate transmission paths
• One for sending and the other for receiving
• The capacity of the channel is divided between signals travelling in both directions
• Example: Telephone network

Dat
a
Dat
a
Animation
[Link]
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=2ahUKEwj565if78KDAxXRcGwGHbsiAXEQ_AUoAnoECAEQBA&biw=1536
&bih=738&dpr=1.25#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:19c3ec95,vid:LMRSS7ZYM50,st:0
Networks: Network Hardware/Network Software

• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of
sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
• Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms.

15
Network Hardware
Network hardware depends on transmission technology and scale.

Transmission Technology

• Broadcast network
Broadcast networks have a single communication channel
that is shared by all the machines on the network
• Point-to-point network.
point-to-point networks consist of many connections between
individual pairs of machines

16
Networks
• Multipoint (multidrop)
• More than two devices share a single link
• Capacity is shared
• Channel is shared either spatially or temporally
• Spatially shared: if devices use link at same time
• Timeshare: if users must take turns
Network Hardware
Scale
• An alternative criterion for classifying networks is their scale.
Multiple processor systems can be arranged by their physical size.

18
 1. Personal Area Network
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) is a
computer network used for data
transmission amongst devices such as
computers, telephones, tablets and
personal digital assistants.
2. Also Known as HAN (Home Area
Network)
3. PANs can be used for communication
amongst the personal devices
themselves (interpersonal
communication), or for connecting to a
higher level network and the Internet (an
uplink) where one "master" device takes
up the role as internet router.

19
2. Local Area Network
Xerox Corporation worked in
collaboration with DEC and Intel to
create Ethernet, which is the most
pervasive LAN architecture used
today.
Ethernet has evolved and has seen
significant improvements in regard to
speed and efficiency.
An upside of a LAN is fast data
transfer with data speed that can reach
up to 10Gbps.
Other significant LAN technologies
are Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI) and token ring.
20
Local Area Network (LAN)
• LAN is distinguished by:
• Size (# users of OS, or licensing restrictions)
• Transmission medium (only one type)
• Topology (bus, ring, star)

• Data Rates (speed):

• Early: 4 to 16 Mbps
• Today: 100 to 1000 Mbps
 3. Metropolitan Area Network
1. A MAN is larger than a LAN but
smaller than or equal in size to a
WAN.
2. The size range anywhere from 5 to
50km in diameter.
3. MANs are typically owned and
managed by a single entity.
4. This could be an ISP or
telecommunications company that sells
its services to end-users in that
metropolitan area.
5. For all intents and purposes, a MAN
has the same characteristics as a WAN
with distance constraints
22
4. Wide Area Network
• A Wide Area Network exist over a
large area
• Data travels through telephone or
cable lines
• Usually requires a Modem
• The world’s largest Wide Area
Network in the Internet

23
Network Devices
• What is a network device?
Components used to connect computers as well as other electrical devices
together in order to share resources such as printers and fax machines.
• Hubs
• Switches
• Routers
• Network bridges
• Gateways
• Firewalls
• Wireless AP (Access Points)

24
HUB
• A small rectangular box that joins computers
together through ports on the back of the hub
• Hardware device used at the physical layer to
connect multiple devices in the network
• used to connect LANs
• Cannot filter data
• Data are sent to all connected devices
• supports half-duplex transmission

25
 Switch
• Switches look similar to hubs in that they are
rectangular in shape
• Unlike hubs, switches can identify the
destination of a packet.
• Switches send information only to the computer
that is suppose to receive the information.
• Switches can also send and retrieve information
at the same time which makes sending
information faster to retrieve than hubs.
• Switches are a better option than hubs for larger
networks or home networks with 4 or more
connected computers.

26
Hub Switch

It works on the physical layer of the OSI model. It works on the data link layer of the OSI model.

It performs frame flooding, which includes It mainly performs broadcasts and performs
broadcast, multicast and unicast as well. multicast, and unicast whenever required.

The transmission mode is half-duplex. The transmission mode is full-duplex.

It can filter data and send the frame to the

It cannot perform data filtering.
desired destination.

A switch may contain more than one spanning

There is no spanning tree.
tree possible.

It can not store the MAC address of the ports

It can store the data in a routing table and it
and the destination address of the frame that
helps in further sending the data.
arrived.

It is a passive device. It is an active device.

The switch can operate at a speed of

Hub can operate at a speed of 10Mbps.
10-100Mbps and 1- 10 Gbps.
 Router
• A specialized computer programmed to interface
between different networks
• Looks for the remote address of the other
computer making routing decisions along the way
• Forwards the user data out to a different interface
that is closer to the remote computer
• Routers make sure data sent over the Internet goes
where it needs to go and not where it is not
needed.
• Acts like a traffic controller, working to cut down
congestion throughout the network and keeps
everything flowing smoothly along the best path.

28
• Tracing route to [Link] [[Link]]
• over a maximum of 30 hops:

• 1 2 ms 1 ms 5 ms [Link]
• 2 1 ms 1 ms 9 ms [Link]
• 3 3 ms 2 ms 2 ms [Link]
• 4 * * * Request timed out.
• 5 12 ms 5 ms 5 ms [Link]
• 6 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms [Link]
• 7 6 ms 10 ms 9 ms [Link]
• 8 5 ms 5 ms 5 ms [Link] [[Link]]
Bridge
• A hardware device used to create a connection
between two separate computer networks or to
divide one network into two.
• Filters data traffic at a network boundary and
reduces the amount of traffic on a LAN dividing
it into two segments.
• Each bridge consist of a MAC address and
operates at layer 2 of the OSI model
• When a packet is received on the bridge ports the
forwarding table including the MAC address is
automatically updated to map the source MAC
address to the network port from which the
packet originated
• The gateway then process the received packet
according to the packet’s type.
30
 Gateway
•A gateway is a network node used in
telecommunications that connects two networks with
different transmission protocols together. Gateways
serve as an entry and exit point for a network as all data
must pass through or communicate with the gateway prior
to being routed.
• A communication device that provides a remote network
with connectivity to the host network
• The gateway node acts like a proxy server and firewall.
• The gateway uses forwarding tables to determine where Gateways are basically
packet are to be sent. protocol converters, facilitating
compatibility between two
• On the Internet a node or stopping point can be a gateway.
protocols and operating on any
• The computers controlling traffic within a network are layer of the open systems
gateway nodes. interconnection (OSI) model.
• A gateway is also associated with a router.
31
Firewall
A firewall is a network device or
software for controlling network
security and access rules.
Firewalls are inserted in connections
between secure internal networks and
potentially insecure external networks
such as the Internet.
Firewalls are typically configured to
reject access requests from
unrecognized sources while allowing
actions from recognized ones.
The vital role firewalls play in network
security grows in parallel with the
constant increase in cyber attacks.
Networks
• Physical Topology
• The way a network is laid out physically
• Two or more links form a topology
• The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices (nodes) to one
another.
• Four topologies : Mesh, Star, Bus, and Ring
Physical Topology

There are 7 Types of network topologies in computer networking:

1. Point-to-Point

2. Bus

3. Star

4. Ring

5. Mesh

6. Tree

7. Hybrid
Physical Topology
• Mesh
• Every link is dedicated point-to-point link
• The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects
Physical Topology
• Mesh
• To link n devices fully connected mesh has:
n ( n - 1) / 2 physical channels (Full-Duplex)

• Every Device on the network must have

n - 1 ports
Physical Topology
• Mesh
• Example:
8 devices in mesh has links: n(n-1) / 2

number of links = 8 (8-1)/2 = 28

number of ports per device = n – 1 = 8 –1 = 7

Physical Topology
• Mesh
• Advantages
• Each connection carry its own data load (no traffic problems)
• A mesh topology is robust
• Privacy or security
• Fault identification and fault isolation
Physical Topology
• Mesh:
• Disadvantages
• Big amount of cabling
• Big number of I/O ports
• Installation and reconnection are difficult
• Sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space
• Hardware connect to each I/O could be expensive

• Mesh topology is implemented in a limited fashion; e.g., as

backbone of hybrid network
Physical Topology
• Star:
• Dedicated point-to-point to a central controller (Hub)
• No direct traffic between devices
• The control acts as an exchange
Physical Topology
• Star
• Advantages
• Less expensive than mesh
(1 Link + 1 port per device)
• Easy to install and reconfigure
• Less cabling
• Additions, moves, and deletions required one connection
• Robustness : one fail does not affect others
• Easy fault identification and fault isolation
Physical Topology
• Star
• Disadvantages
• Dependency of the whole topology on one single point (hub)
• More cabling than other topologies ( ring or bus)

• Used in LAN
Physical Topology
• Bus
• It is multipoint
• One long cable acts as a backbone
• Used in the design of early LANS, and Ethernet LANs
Physical Topology
• Bus
• Nodes connect to cable by drop lines and taps
• Signal travels along the backbone and some of its energy is transformed to
heat
• Limit of number of taps and the distance between taps
Physical Topology
• Bus
• Advantages
• Ease of installation
• Less cables than mesh, star topologies
• Disadvantages
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation ( limit of taps)
• Adding new device requires modification of backbone
• Fault or break stops all transmission
• The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of the origin, creating noise in
both directions
Physical Topology
• Ring
• Each device has dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices
on either side of it
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it
reaches its destination
• Each devices incorporates a Repeater
Physical Topology
• Ring
• Advantages
• Easy of install and reconfigure
• Connect to immediate neighbors
• Move two connections for any moving (Add/Delete)
• Easy of fault isolation
• Disadvantage
• Unidirectional
• One broken device can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by
using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break
Tree Topology

• combines bus and star topologies.

• known as a hierarchical topology
• arranging nodes in a hierarchical structure that resembles a tree
• multiple star networks are connected to a central bus, allowing for a scalable and
organized network design
• Backbone-tree, groups of star-configured networks are connected to a
linear bus backbone.
Advantages:
● Scalable and easy to expand by adding new
nodes without disrupting the entire network.
● Facilitates better management and
organization of devices.
Disadvantages:
● If the central trunk fails, it can disrupt the
entire network.
● More complex to configure and maintain
compared to simpler topologies.
Physical Topology
• Hybrid Topology
• Example: having a main star topology with each branch connecting several
stations in a bus topology
• two or more different topologies into a single network
• combination of a minimum of two
or above topologies.

• flexible, so new topologies as

well as nodes can be added &
removed easily from the network.

• If any error occurs within the

network then it is easily detected
so that the network node or
network device can be replaced
through a new node or device.
 Network Software
• Communication Protocol Hierarchies
• Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
• Service Primitives
• The Relationship of Services to Protocols

52
Network Software: Protocol Hierarchies
• Layers, protocols, and interfaces
• Conversation between layer n
on one machine with layer n on
another machine: the rules and
conventions used in this conversation
are collectively known as the
layer n protocol
• A set of layers and protocols is
called a network architecture
• A list of the protocols used by a certain
system, one protocol per layer, is called a
protocol stack
53
Network Software: Protocol Hierarchies
• Communication Flow
• Definition 1: A protocol is an
agreement between the
communicating parties on
how communication is to
proceed
• Definition 2: A protocol is a set
of communication "rules"
between two processes

54
Design Issues for the Layers
A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach of
computer networks
• Reliability
• Scalability
• Addressing
• Error Control
• Flow Control
• Resource Allocation
• Routing
• Security

55
Network Software: Connection-Oriented
• Connection is established, the sender, receiver, and subnet conduct a negotiation
about the parameters to be used, such as
• Maximum message size
• Quality of service required, and other issues
• Typically, one side makes a proposal and the other side can accept it, reject it, or
make a counter proposal.
• A circuit is another name for a connection with associated resources (after the
telephone model …)
• Reliability: do not lose data – e.g., the receiver acknowledge the receipt of each
message
• so the sender is sure that it arrived
• TCP – Transmission Control Protocol is connection oriented
• Text documents, email, image attachments
56
Network Software: Connectionless Services
• In contrast to connection-oriented service, connectionless service is modeled
after the postal system
• Each message (letter/package) carries the full destination address and each
one is routed through the intermediate nodes inside the system independent of
all the subsequent messages
• UDP – User Datagram Protocol – unreliable
• Unreliable (meaning not acknowledged) connectionless service is often called
datagram service, in analogy with telegram (service, which also does not
return an acknowledgement to the sender)
• Video streaming, Video conference, VOIP, Digital TV transmission (Idan+)

57
Difference between Connection-Oriented Connectionless Services
[Link] Connection-oriented Service Connectionless Service

1 Connection-oriented service is related to the telephone system. Connection-less service is related to the postal system.

Connection-oriented service is preferred by long and steady Connection-less Service is preferred by bursty
2.
communication. communication.

3. Connection-oriented Service is necessary. Connection-less Service is not compulsory.

4. Connection-oriented Service is feasible. Connection-less Service is not feasible.

5. In connection-oriented Service, Congestion is not possible. In connection-less Service, Congestion is possible.

Connection-less Service does not give a guarantee of

6. Connection-oriented Service gives the guarantee of reliability.
reliability.

In connection-less Service, Packets do not follow the same

7. In connection-oriented Service, Packets follow the same route.
route.

8. Connection-oriented services require a bandwidth of a high range. Connection-less Service requires a bandwidth of low range.

9. Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

10. Connection-oriented requires authentication. Connection-less Service does not require authentication.
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

60
Connection-oriented Service Primitives
• Minimal example of service primitives that provide a reliable byte stream
• A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available
to user processes to access the service
• These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an
action taken by a peer entity (usually as operating system calls)
• Modeled after the Berkeley socket interface

61
The Relationship of Services to Protocols
• A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer
above it.
• The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform or behalf
of its users, but it says nothing at all about how these operations are
implemented.
• A service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower layer
being the service provider and the upper layer being the service user.
• A service is like an abstract data type or an object in an object-oriented
language.
• It defines operations that can be performed on an object but does not specify
how these operations are implemented.

62
The Relationship of Services to Protocols

• A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format and meaning

of the frames, packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer entities
within a layer.
• Entities use protocols in order to implement their service definitions.
• They are free to change their protocols at will, provided they do not change
the service visible to their users.
• In this way, the service and the protocol are completely decoupled
• A protocol relates to the implementation of the service and as such is not
visible to the user of the service

64
Internet: Internet history
Internet :
• Started as DARPNET – scientist and researchers used to communicate
and share file.
• 1965 –MIT developed packet switching network
• 1969 – ARPANET started node to node communication
• 1970 – Robert E Khann and Vinton Cerf invented TCP and IP
• 1980 – Scientist and researcher used network to share files between
different universities and labs
• 1991 –Tim- Berners Lee introduced the WWW : an Internet. He created
the first browser and the Internet
• 1992 – a group of student and researcher developed a browser called
Mosaic. Which was later called Netscape

65
Hierarchical Organization of Internet

66
Protocols and Standards
Protocols are rules and regulations.
• It defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when
it is communicated.
• Key elements of protocol are,
• Syntax: Format of data
• Semantics: Meaning of each section of bits
• Timing: When data should sent and how fast?
Standards are agreed rules.
• Essential for creating and maintaining an open and competitive
market for equipment manufactures.
• For national and international interoperability.
• De facto standards: Not been approved by an organized body but
have been adopted as standards through widespread use.
67
Protocols and Standards
• Standard Organizations
▪ Standard Creation Committees
• ISO (International Standard Organization)
• International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
▪ Forums
▪ Regulatory Agencies: FCC (Federal Communications Commissions)
• Internet Standards
▪ Internet draft: Lifetime of only 6 month
▪ RFC (Request for Comment): After recommendation from internet authorities,
draft will be converted to RFC.

68
RFCs
• A Request for Comments (RFC) is a formal document from the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) that contains specifications and organizational
notes about topics related to the internet and computer networking, such
as routing, addressing and transport technologies
• An IETF RFC begins with an initial draft, referred to as the Internet-Draft
(I-D). This draft is typically created by an individual or small group. The I-D
is then adopted by a working group that reviews, improves and revises the
document's content.
• RFCs are produced primarily by the Internet Architecture
Board (IAB), Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) and IETF
• After an RFC has gone through the review and revision process, it receives a
final review for errors, as well as for style and editorial issues. Once a
satisfactory document is produced, the RFC Production Center (RPC) assigns
a unique number to the RFC and publishes it through the RFC Editor.
69
Layered Task
OSI Model
• Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
• ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.

71
Seven Layers of OSI
All
people
Seems
to
need
data
processing
72
Interaction between Layers

73
Exchange using the OSI Model

2.74
Physical Layer

• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
• Physical characteristics of interface and medium
• Representation of bits (electrical or optical)
• Data rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Line configuration: Point to point, Multipoint
• Physical topology: Bus, Star, Ring, Hybrid
• Transmission modes: simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex
• Physical cable, Repeaters and Hubs also operate at this layer

75
Data Link layer

❑ A Switch’s primary responsibility is to facilitate communication within Networks

❑ Deliver packets from one NIC to another
 Data Link Layer

• The data link layer is responsible for

moving frames from one hop (node) to the
next
• Framing
• Physical addressing
• Flow control-controlling of flow of data
• Error control-detection & retransmission
of damaged or lost frames.
• Access control.
• Hop-to-hop delivery or node-to-node
delivery 77
Network Layer

• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to
the destination host.
• Logical addressing
• Routing
• Source-to-destination delivery
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Source to Destination Delivery

80
Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.
• Service point addressing-provides proper service point address.
• Segmentation and reassembly-divides message into transmittable segments with a sequence
number.
• Connection control-Connectionless or connection oriented
• Flow control-process to process rather than across single link.
• Error control-process to process rather than across single link.
• Process-to-process delivery
81
Process to Process Delivery

82
Session Layer

• Dialog control
• Synchronization and Check-pointing

83
Presentation Layer

• Translation
• Compression
• Encryption.

84
Application Layer

• File transfer, access and management

• Mail services
• Directory services

85
Summary of OSI Model

87
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do
not exactly match those in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was
defined as having four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application.
• However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI,
the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five
layers:
• physical, data link, network, transport, and
application.

88
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

89
Application Layer
• Application layer protocols define the rules when implementing specific
network applications
• Rely on the underlying layers to provide accurate and efficient data delivery
• Typical protocols:
1) FTP – File Transfer Protocol : For file transfer
2) Telnet – Remote terminal protocol : For remote login on any other
computer on the network
3) SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol : For mail transfer
4) HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol : For Web browsing
• Encompasses same functions as these OSI Model layers Application
Presentation Session

90
Transport Layer
• TCP &UDP
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
• Does not mean it has a physical connection between sender and receiver
• TCP provides the function to allow a connection virtually exists – also called virtual circuit
• UDP provides the functions:
• Dividing a chunk of data into segments
• Reassembly segments into the original chunk
• Provide further the functions such as reordering and data resend
• Offering a reliable byte-stream delivery service
• Functions the same as the Transport layer in OSI
• Synchronize source and destination computers to set up the session between the
respective computers

91
Internet Layer & Host-to-network layer
• The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets
and connects independent networks to transport the packets across
network boundaries. The network layer protocols are the IP and the
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error
reporting.

• The Host-to-network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP

reference model. It combines the link layer and the physical layer of
the ISO/OSI model. At this layer, data is transferred between
adjacent network nodes in a WAN or between nodes on the same
LAN.

92
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP reference model
Sr. No OSI reference Model TCP/IP reference model
1 OSI represents Open System TCP/IP model represents the Transmission
Interconnection Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.
2 It contains 7 layers It contains 4 layers
3 Protocol independent standard Protocol dependent standard
4 The OSI model was developed first, and then The protocols were created first and then
protocols were created to fit the network built the TCP/IP mode
architecture’s needs
5 It distinguishes between Service, Interface Does not clearly distinguishes between
and Protocol Service, Interface and Protocol
6 It provides quality services It does not provide quality services.

7 The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 The smallest size of the TCP/IP header is 20
bytes. bytes.

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Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP reference model
Sr. No OSI reference Model TCP/IP reference model
8 It follows vertical approach It follows horizontal approach

9 Has separate session and presentation Combines session and presentation layer
layer in the application layer

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Data and Signals :Analog and Digital Data
Data
It is defined as the entities that convey meaning or information.
Data can be of two types:
1) Analog Data
Analog data is the type of data that varies continuously with respect to
time.
Analog data take on continuous values.
E.g. voice and video

2) Digital Data:
Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.
Digital data take on discrete values.
[Link] data stored in the computer memory in the form of 0’s and 1’s.

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Data and Signals :Analog and Digital Signal
Signal
Signals are electric or electromagnetic representation of data.
Analog Signals
Have Infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an
infinite number of values along its path.
Have infinite number of values in a range.
E.g. sine and cosine waves.
Digital Signals
Digital signals can have only a limited number of defined values.

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Transmission Impairment
• Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The
imperfection causes signal impairment.
• This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the
same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is
received.
• Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

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Attenuation

Details

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Distortion

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Noise

• Thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise

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DIGITAL SIGNALS

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References

• Client Server Programming - Slide Figures/quotes from Andrew Tanenbaum

Computer Networks book.

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