Waves and Oscillations

Module I
Periodic Motion
• If the motion of a system repeats itself after regular interval, then the
Motion is called periodic motion. The regular interval is called period
of the motion.

• Examples: Motion of celling fan, Motion of the arms of the clocks,

motion of pendulum, rocking chair, bouncing ball, vibrating tuning
fork, Motion of Planets or satellites in their orbits etc.

• If the motion is repeated after a regular interval of time then the

period of the motion is called Time Period (T).
 Periodic Motion
• Periodic motion is a motion that regularly returns to a given
position after a fixed time interval.
• A particular type of periodic motion is “simple harmonic motion,”
which arises when the force acting on an object is proportional to
the position of the object about some equilibrium position.
• The motion of an object
connected to a spring is a
good example.

Please check the simulations

[Link]
[Link]
 Restoring Force and the
Spring Mass System
 In a, the block is displaced to the right of x = 0.
 The position is positive.
 The restoring force is directed to
the left (negative).
 In b, the block is at the equilibrium position.
 x=0
 The spring is neither stretched nor compressed.
 The force is 0.
 In c, the block is displaced to the left of x = 0.
 The position is negative.
 The restoring force is directed to
the right (positive).
Simple Harmonic Motion

 The two and fro periodic motion is called vibration or oscillation

 In vibration or oscillation there is always an equilibrium position

 The displacement of the vibrating or oscillating particle is measured

from the equilibrium position.

 If the acceleration of the vibrating or oscillating particle hence the

force acting on it is proportional to the displacement and always
directed towards equilibrium position then the motion is called
‘SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)’.

 All SHM s are periodic but all periodic motions are not SHM.
Simple Harmonic Motion

If
F ⇒ force of the oscillating particle
x ⇒ displacement from the equilibrium or mean position

The motion will be SHM if

F ∝ −x
⇒ F = −kx

Where,
k ⇒ Force constant of spring constant (in case of vibration of spring)

The minus sign on the force indicates that it is a restoring force—it is directed
to restore the mass to its equilibrium position.
Some important terms
Mean or Equilibrium position: The point where the oscillating particle
will remain in equilibrium.

Displacement: The distance covered by the oscillating particle from its

mean position at any given instant is known as is displacement at that
instant (x).

Amplitude: The maximum distance covered by an oscillating particle on

either sides of its mean position is called its amplitude (A)

Hence A= maximum x
Some important terms
Time period: Time taken for one complete cycle of its oscillation is
known as its time period (T) of its oscillation.

Frequency: Total number of complete oscillation in unit time (1s)

interval is called its frequency (f) of oscillation.

The relation between the time period and frequency is

1
T=
f

Phase: The argument, of the trigonometric function that represent a SHM,

represents the state of the motion i.e., its position, velocity, acceleration
etc. is called its phase.
Differential Equation of Motion
• Using F = ma for the spring, we have
• But recall that acceleration is the second derivative of the
position: d 2x
a
dt 2
• So this simple force equation is an example of a differential
equation,
d 2x d 2x k
m 2  kx or 2
 x
dt dt m
• An object moves in simple harmonic motion whenever its
acceleration is proportional to its position and has the opposite
sign to the displacement from equilibrium.
Acceleration
• Note that the acceleration is NOT constant, unlike our earlier
kinematic equations.
• If the block is released from some position x = A, then the
initial acceleration is – kA/m, but as it passes through 0 the
acceleration falls to zero.
• It only continues past its equilibrium point because it now
has momentum (and kinetic energy) that carries it on past x
= 0.
• The block continues to x = – A, where its acceleration then
becomes +kA/m.
Analysis Model, Simple Harmonic Motion
d 2x k
• What are the units of k/m, in a 2  x
?
dt m
• They are 1/s2, which we can regard as a frequency-squared, so let’s write it as
k
 
2

m
• Then the equation becomes

a   2 x
• A typical way to solve such a differential equation is to simply search for a
function that satisfies the requirement, in this case, that its second derivative
yields the negative of itself! The sine and cosine functions meet these
requirements.
SHM & Uniform circular motion
Let us consider the uniform circular motion of a
particle.

The motion of the projection on x axis or y axis

will be SHM

A => radius of the circular path

q => Angular displacement
Then the displacement of the projection on x
axis (or y axis) from the center (the mean
position) of the circle is

x = A cos q (y = A sin q)

Here A=> Amplitude of oscillation.

SHM & Uniform circular motion

If ω ⇒ uniform angular velocity

⟹ θ = ωt

Hence x = A cos ωt

dx
Velocity v = = −Aω sin ωt = −Aω sin 𝜃
dt

dv
Acceleration a = = −Aω2 cos ωt = −ω2 x
dt
⟹ a ∝ −x

So, motion of the projection is SHM

x(t )  A cos(t   )
dx
v(t )    A sin(t   )
dt
d 2x
a (t )  2   2 A cos(t   )
dt
Consider the Energy of SHM Oscillator
• The spring force is a conservative force, so in a frictionless system
the energy is constant
• Kinetic energy, as usual, is

K  12 mv 2  12 m 2 A2 sin 2 (t   

• The spring potential energy, as usual, is

U  12 kx 2  12 kA2 cos2 (t   

• Then the total energy is just

E  K  U  12 kA2 (a constant)
 Energy of SHM
Total energy of SHM = Kinetic Energy (K.E) + Potential Energy (P.E)

1
Kinetic Energy: K = mv 2
2
x = A cos ωt
dx
⇒v= = −Aω sin ωt = −Aω sin θ
dt
𝟏 𝟏
Hence K.E = 𝐊 = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 = 𝐦(−𝐀𝛚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭) 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
⇒ 𝐊 = 𝐦𝐀𝟐 𝛚𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛚𝐭
𝟐
1
⇒ K = mω2 A2 1 − cos 2 ωt
2
1
⇒ K = mω2 A2 − x 2
2
1
⇒ K = k A2 − x 2
2

1
When x = 0, K = K max = kA2
2
Energy of SHM
Potential Energy: 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭 = −𝒌𝒙
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒙, 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝒅𝒘 = −𝑭𝒅𝒙 = +𝒌𝒙𝒅𝒙
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒙,
𝒙 𝒙
𝟏 𝟐
𝑾 = න 𝒅𝒘 = න 𝒌𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝒌𝒙
𝟎 𝟎 𝟐
This work done will be store as P.E in the
oscillator
𝟏
𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝑼 = 𝟐 𝒌𝒙𝟐
1
When x = A, U = Umax = 2 kA2

Hence Total Energy = 𝑬 = 𝑲 + 𝑼

1 1
⇒ 𝑬 = k A2 − x 2 + 𝑘𝑥 2
2 2
1
⇒ 𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴2 = 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
Damped Harmonic Motion
The study of energy dissipation in damped systems is central to understanding how
mechanical, electrical, and other oscillatory systems lose energy over time due to
non-conservative forces like friction or resistance. Damped harmonic motion is
harmonic motion with a frictional or drag force. Damping results in energy
dissipation, usually as heat.
Damping is any effect—typically a force—that removes energy from an oscillating
system, causing its amplitude to decrease over time.
Common causes: friction, air resistance, internal material friction, electrical
resistance (in circuits).

[Link]
Electrical RLC circuit Resistance (R) Joule heating
Car suspension Hydraulic resistance Heat
Pendulum in air Air drag Heat
Building in earthquake Structural damping Internal heat
 Damped Harmonic Motion
If the damping is large, it no longer
resembles SHM at all.
Types of Damping
a. Underdamped (A)
•Oscillates with decreasing amplitude.
•Energy is gradually lost.
•Common in real-world systems (e.g., shock
absorbers).
b. Critically Damped (B)
•Returns to equilibrium as quickly as possible
without oscillating.
•Ideal for systems like door closers.
c. Overdamped (C)
•Returns to equilibrium slowly, no oscillation.
•Excessively damped, sluggish response.
Quality Factor (Q)

Energy Dissipation Over Time

Forced Oscillation:
Resonance

 Analyzing the response of a forced oscillator is crucial in understanding how systems

behave under external periodic influences—
 In damped harmonic motion due to damping, energy of the oscillating particle will
decrees continuously and as a result the amplitude of oscillation will decrees
continuously to zero
 For sustained oscillation for overcoming the damping we need to supply external
periodic force.
 Forced vibrations occur when there is a periodic driving force. This force may or may
not have the same period as the natural frequency of the system.
 If the frequency is the same as the natural frequency, the amplitude becomes quite
large. This is called resonance.
 Forced Oscillation:
a. Transient Response
•Decays over time due to damping.
b. Steady-State Response
•Dominates after transients die out.

The sharpness of the resonant peak depends on

the damping. If the damping is small (A), it can
be quite sharp; if the damping is larger (B), it is
less sharp.

Like damping, resonance can be wanted or

unwanted. Musical instruments and TV/radio
receivers depend on it.

Resonance
Amplitude Response
Occurs when ω is close to
ω0 ​, especially if damping
is small.
Swinging on a Playground Swing Slinky Demonstration
•Concept: Human-scale oscillation. •Concept: Push/pull the slinky → see both
•Key Idea: You add energy at the natural transverse and longitudinal waves.
frequency to increase amplitude •Key Idea: Visual representation of wave types
(resonance). and their behavior (reflection, transmission.)

Simple Pendulum (Mechanical Oscillator) Water Waves

•Concept: A pendulum swinging back and •Concept: Throw a stone in water → ripples
forth demonstrates simple harmonic travel outward.
motion (SHM) when the angle is small. •Key Idea: Energy is transferred through the
•Key Idea: Restoring force is proportional medium; particles move in circular paths
to displacement from equilibrium. (transverse + longitudinal components).

Mass-Spring System Sound Waves

•Concept: A mass attached to a spring •Concept: Vibrating speaker cone pushes air
oscillates back and forth. molecules → sound propagates.
•Key Idea: Ideal SHM, governed by •Key Idea: Longitudinal wave; regions of
Hooke’s Law: F=−kx compression and rarefaction.

Quartz Crystal in a Watch Guitar String

•Concept: Oscillates at a very precise •Concept: Pluck a string → it vibrates and
frequency. produces sound.
•Key Idea: Stable mechanical oscillations •Key Idea: Standing waves form; fundamental
used for timekeeping. frequency and harmonics determine pitch.
1. Microwave Oven
•Concept: Microwaves cause water molecules
to oscillate, heating the food.
•Key Idea: Energy from electromagnetic
waves is transferred to molecular oscillations
(resonance).

2. Bridge Collapse (Tacoma Narrows)

•Concept: Bridge oscillated uncontrollably due
to wind.
•Key Idea: Resonance — matching natural
frequency leads to increasing amplitude and
eventual failure.

3. Earthquake Seismic Waves

•Concept: Energy from faults travels as waves
through the Earth.
•Key Idea: Both transverse (S-waves) and
longitudinal (P-waves); different materials
affect speed and transmission.
Simple Pendulum
• The forces acting on the bob are the tension and
the weight.
• T is the force exerted by the string
• mg is the gravitational force
• The tangential component of the gravitational
force is the restoring force.
• Recall that the tangential acceleration is
d 2q
at  r  L  L 2
dt
• This gives another differential equation
d 2q g g
2
  m sin q   m q (for small q )
dt L L
Frequency of Simple Pendulum
• The equation for q is the same form as for the spring, with
solution
q (t )  q max cos( t   )
where now the angular frequency is
g  2 L
  so the period is T =  2 
L   g

Summary: the period and frequency of a simple pendulum

depend only on the length of the string and the acceleration
due to gravity. The period is independent of mass.

8/21/2025
Torsional Pendulum
• Assume a rigid object is suspended
from a wire attached at its top to a
fixed support.
• The twisted wire exerts a restoring
torque on the object that is
proportional to its angular position.
• The restoring torque is t  k q
• k is the torsion constant of the
support wire.
• Newton’s Second Law2gives
dq
t  I  kq  I 2
dt
d 2q k
  q
dt 2 I