BEHARAGORA POLYTECHNIC

Basic Surveying
 BEHARAGORA POLYTECHNIC

CONTENT

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 Definition of Surveying:- Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of points
on, above, or below the surface of the Earth, and presenting this information in the form of maps, plans,
or charts.
 Objectives of Surveying :-
1) To determine accurate positions of natural and man-made features on the Earth’s surface.
2) To prepare maps, plans, and digital models for engineering, planning, and development.
3) To set out and control construction work such as roads, buildings, bridges, pipelines, etc.
4) To measure and mark land boundaries for legal, ownership, or governmental purposes.
5) To collect data for topographic and geodetic studies.
6) To monitor movement or deformation in structures and landforms.

 Purpose of Surveying in Survey :-

1. Planning and Design:-

o Provides essential data for designing infrastructure and utilities.

2. Construction Layout:-

o Ensures structures are built in the correct position and alignment.

3. Land Development:-

o Helps in subdividing land for residential, commercial, or industrial use.

4. Mapping and GIS Applications:-

o Supplies data for creating digital maps and Geographic Information Systems.

5. Legal Documentation:-

o Used for property boundary demarcation and dispute resolution.

6. Deformation Studies:-

o Monitors changes in terrain or structures like dams, tunnels, and slopes over time.

 Primary Division of Surveying:-

Surveying is primarily divided into two main categories based on the shape and size of the Earth considered
during the survey:

1. Plane Surveying:-

 Assumes the Earth’s surface is flat (plane).

 Used for small areas (usually less than 250 km²).

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 Curvature of the Earth is neglected.

 Simple methods and instruments are used.

 Examples: Property surveys, building layouts, road design.

2. Geodetic Surveying:-

 Takes into account the curvature of the Earth.

 Used for large areas (more than 250 km²).

 High precision required.

 Involves advanced instruments like GPS, theodolites, and satellites.

 Used in national mapping, coastal surveys, etc.

 Classification of Surveying:-

Surveying can also be classified based on various factors:

 Based on the Nature of the Field Surveyed:-

1. Land Surveying:-

o Surveys conducted on land.

o Includes topographic, cadastral, and engineering surveys.

2. Hydrographic (Marine) Surveying:-

o Surveys of water bodies (rivers, lakes, seas).

o Used for navigation, port construction, etc.

3. Astronomical Surveying:-

o Determines positions using celestial bodies (sun, stars).

o Helps in determining true direction (azimuth), latitude, and longitude.

 Based on the Purpose of the Survey:-

1. Topographical Surveying

o To show natural features (hills, rivers) and man-made features (roads, buildings).

2. Cadastral Surveying

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o To determine property boundaries for ownership or legal documentation.

3. Engineering Surveying

o For planning, design, and execution of engineering works like roads, bridges, dams, etc.

4. Military Surveying

o Used for defense and strategic planning.

5. Mine Surveying

o For exploration and development of mines.

6. Archaeological Surveying

o For locating and mapping historical or ancient sites.

 Based on the Instruments Used:-

1. Chain Surveying

o Uses chains or tapes for linear measurement.

2. Compass Surveying

o Uses a magnetic compass to measure bearings.

3. Plane Table Surveying

o Uses a plane table and alidade for field plotting.

4. Theodolite Surveying

o Uses a theodolite for precise angle measurement.

5. Tachometric Surveying

o Uses tacheometers for measuring distances indirectly.

6. Photographic/Aerial Surveying

o Uses aerial or drone photos for large-scale mapping.

7. GPS/GNSS Surveying

o Uses satellites for highly accurate positioning.

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 Principles of Surveying:-

Surveying is the art and science of determining the relative positions of points on, above, or below the
Earth's surface. It involves measuring distances, angles, and elevations.

 Fundamental Principles:-

1. Working from Whole to Part:-

o Establish main control points first (whole), then work into the smaller details (part).

o Reduces error accumulation.

2. Location of a Point by Measurement from Two Points of Reference:-

o A point’s location is determined by its distance and angle from known control points.

3. Consistency of Methods:-

o Always use consistent methods and instruments for accuracy and reliability.

4. Independent Check:-

o All measurements should be verified by independent checks to ensure accuracy.

5. Accuracy Proportional to Importance:-

o Higher accuracy is needed for more critical or high-cost projects.

 Units of Measurement:-

A. Linear Measurement Units

Metric System (SI Units):

 Millimeter (mm)

 Centimeter (cm)

 Meter (m) (standard unit)

 Kilometer (km)

Imperial (British) Units:

 Inch (in)

 Foot (ft) (1 ft = 12 in)

 Yard (yd) (1 yd = 3 ft)

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 Chain (ch) (1 ch = 66 ft)

 Mile (mi) (1 mi = 5280 ft)

B. Angular Measurement Units:-

Angles are measured in two primary systems:

1. Sexagesimal System (Degrees):

 1 circle = 360 degrees (°)

 1 degree = 60 minutes (')

 1 minute = 60 seconds ('')

2. Centesimal System (Grads):

 1 circle = 400 grads (g)

 1 grad = 100 centesimal minutes (c)

 1 centesimal minute = 100 centesimal seconds

3. Radian System:

 1 circle = 2π2\pi2π radians

 1 radian ≈ 57.2958 degrees

 Methods of Measurement:-

A. Linear Measurement:-

Methods for measuring distances:

1. Direct Methods (e.g., using chains, tapes)

2. Optical Methods (e.g., tachometry)

3. Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)

Common Tools:-

 Chain or Tape (Steel, Invar)

 Ranging Rods

 Arrows

 Total Station (modern instrument)

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B. Angular Measurement:-

Methods for measuring angles:

1. Compass Surveying

2. Theodolite Surveying

3. Total Station (Electronic Theodolite + EDM)

4. Errors in Measurement:-

Types of errors:

 Systematic Errors: Constant or proportional (e.g., tape too long)

 Random Errors: Due to observer's limitations

 Gross Errors: Human mistakes (e.g., reading/writing wrong value)

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