Dr.

Ahlem Nemer 1

Course : Algebra 3
Year : 2023/2024
Department of Computer Science
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Chapter 4 :
Vector spaces

1 Maps on vector spaces

Definition 1.1 Let V be a vector space over a field K and let f : V × V −→ K be a function. Supppose that
the following two conditions hold, for α, β ∈ K.
0 0 0
a. f (αx + βx , y) = αf (x, y) + βf (x , y), x, x , y ∈ V.
0 0 0
b. f (x, αy + βy ) = αf (x, y) + βf (x, y ), x, y, y ∈ V.
Then, f is called a bilinear map on V.

Example 1.1 Consider the function f : V × V −→ K where

f (x, y) = xAy T , (1)

with V = Rn and K = R and where A is an n × n matrix. Then , f represents a bilinear map.

Definition 1.2 Let V be a vector space over a field K and let f be a bilinear map on V. Take that g : V −→ K
is a map, having
g(x) = f (x, x). (2)
Then, g is called a quadratic map on V.

Example 1.2 Consider

f (x, y) = a11 x1 y1 + a12 x1 y2 + a21 x2 y1 + a22 x2 y2 . (3)
Then, we have
g(x) = a11 x21 + (a12 + a21 )x1 x2 + a22 x22 , (4)
this map represents a quadratic map.
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Definition 1.3 Suppose that the quadratic map g : V −→ K satisfies, for x 6= 0,

g(x) = f (x, x)  0, (5)

where f is a bilinear map. Then, g and f are positive definite.

Definition 1.4 Let V be a vector space over K and let S be a subset of V . Suppose that x1 , x2 , · · · , xn is a finite
list of vectors with x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ∈ S. Then, S spans V iff x = α1 x1 +α2 x2 +· · ·+αn xn , for α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ∈ K.

Definition 1.5 Let V be a vector space and let S ⊆ V . Assume that S spans V and S must be linearly
independent. Then, S is called a basis of V .

Definition 1.6 Suppose that V is a vector space and that (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) is an ordered basis for V . Take that

aij = f (xi , xj ), (6)

where f is a bilinear map on V . Then, A = (aij ) is said to be the matrix for f with respect to (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ).

2 Inner product spaces

Definition 2.1 Suppose that Y = R or Y = C and that V is a vector space over Y . Take that <, >: V ×V −→ Y
is a function satisfies, for x, y, z ∈ V,
1. < x, x >< 0 and < x, x >= 0 ⇔ x = 0.

2. .
< x, y >= < y, x > when Y = C.
< x, y >=< y, x > when Y = R.
3. < αx + βy, z >= α < x, z > +β < y, z >, for α, β ∈ Y.

Then, the function <, >: V × V −→ Y is called an inner product on V.

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Definition 2.2 Suppose that V is a vector space over Y . Take that <, >: V × V −→ Y is an inner product on
V.

1. When V is a real or complex vector space, V is said to be a real or complex inner product space.
2. When V is a real vector space, V is said to be a Euclidean space.
3. When V is a complex vector space, V is said to be a unitary space.

Definition 2.3 Let d : X × X −→ R be a function where X is a nonempty set and assume that, for x, y, z ∈ X,
1. d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y.

2. 0 4 d(x, y) ≺ ∞.
3. d(x, y) = d(y, x).
4. d(x, z) 4 d(x, y) + d(y, z).

Then, d(x, y) is said to be the distance from x to y or a metric on X.

Definition 2.4 Suppose that X is a nonempty set and that d : X × X −→ R is a metric on X. Then, X is said
to be a metric space.

Remark 2.1 .
For x ∈ V , the norm of x can be represented as
√
k x k= < x, x >, (7)

where V is an inner product space.

The polarization identities are presented in the following two theorems where V is a real or complex inner
product space.

Theorem 2.1 Let V be a real inner product space and let x, y ∈ V. Then, we have
1
< x, y >= (k x + y k2 − k x − y k2 ). (8)
4
Theorem 2.2 Let V be a complex inner product space and let x, y ∈ V. Then, we get
1 1
< x, y >= (k x + y k2 − k x − y k2 ) + i(k x + iy k2 − k x − iy k2 ). (9)
4 4
Definition 2.5 Suppose that X is a metric space and that x ∈ X. Let {xn }n∈N be a sequence of points in X.
Then, we can say that {xn }n∈N converges to x when

lim d(xn , x) = 0, (10)

n−→∞

which means that for ε  0 we find an integer N  0 with n < N =⇒ d(xn , x) ≺ ε.

Definition 2.6 Assume that X is a metric space and that {xn }n∈N is a sequence of points in X. Then, {xn }n∈N
is called a Cauchy sequence when we have that for ε  0 we find an integer N  0 with m, n < N =⇒ d(xm , xn ) ≺
ε.
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Theorem 2.3 Let x, y, z ∈ V . Then, we have

1. k x + y k4k x k + k y k, (The triangle inequality).

2. k x + y k2 + k x − y k2 = 2 k x k2 +2 k y k2 , (The parallelogram law).
3. k x − y k4k x − z k + k z − y k .

4. | < x, y > | 4k x kk y k, (The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality).

5. k x k< 0 and k x k= 0 if and only if x = 0.

Lemma 2.1 Let X be a metric space and let {xn }n∈N be a convergent sequence in X. Then, {xn }n∈N is said to
be a Cauchy sequence.

Definition 2.7 Suppose that X is a metric space and that x is an element of X. Take that each Cauchy sequence
in X converges to x. Then, X is said to be complete.

Remark 2.2 .
Let V be a real or complex vector space and let
√
k x k= < x, x >. (11)

Then, a complete metric space (V, k x − y k) is said to be a Hilbert space.

3 Orthogonal sets

Definition 3.1 Suppose that V is an inner product space and that x and y are vectors. Let < x, y >= 0 for
x, y ∈ V. Then, the vectors x and y are called orthogonal and denoted by x ⊥ y.

Definition 3.2 Suppose that V is an inner product space and that A1 and A2 are subsets with A1 , A2 ⊆ V. Let
x ⊥ y for every x ∈ A1 and y ∈ A2 . Then, A1 and A2 are said to be orthogonal.

Definition 3.3 Let V be an inner product space and let A be a nonempty set of vectors where

A = {xi \ i ∈ K}. (12)

1. When we have xi ⊥ xj for i 6= j, A is called orthogonal.

2. When we have
< xi , xj >= δi,j , (13)
A is called orthonormal such that δi,j represents the Kronecker delta function with

1 when i = j,
δi,j :=
0 when i 6= j.
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Theorem 3.1 (Pythagoras) Let V be a real or complex inner product space and let x ⊥ y. Then, we have

k x + y k2 =k x k2 + k y k2 . (14)

Theorem 3.2 (Gram-Schmidt) Suppose that V is a real or complex inner product space and that {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }
is a basis for V . Then, we say that {u1 , u2 , · · · , un } represents an orthogonal basis for V where

u1 = v1 , (15)

and
j−1
X < vj , ui >
uj = vj − ui , j = 2, · · · , n. (16)
i=1
< ui , ui >
An orthonormal basis for V is given by
u1 u2 un
{ , ,··· , }. (17)
k u1 k k u2 k k un k

4 Orthogonal matrices and their properties

Definition 4.1 Let A be an n × n matrix over R and let

AT A = AAT = In . (18)

Then, we say that A is an orthogonal matrix.

Theorem 4.1 Let A be an orthogonal matrix. Then, we have

a. A−1 is an orthogonal matrix.

b. AT is an orthogonal matrix.

Theorem 4.2 Let A and B be two matrices of order n such that A and B are orthogonal matrices. Then, the
product AB represents an orthogonal matrix, on the other hand, the product BA is also orthogonal.

Theorem 4.3 Let A be an orthogonal matrix. Then, the determinant of A is equal to ±1.

Remark 4.1 .
The group which is denoted by GLn (R) is said to be the general linear group of degree n over R if GLn (R)
is the group of n × n matrices that are real and nonsingular such that this group is the group under matrix
multiplication. On he other hand, the general linear group of degree n over C is denoted by GLn (C).
The group which id denoted by On (R) is said to be the orthogonal group if On (R) is the group of n × n orthogonal
matrices over R such that this group is the group under multiplication.
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5 Unitary matrices and their properties

Definition 5.1 Let A be an n × n matrix over C and let

A∗ A = AA∗ = In . (19)

Then, we say that A is a unitary matrix such that A∗ is the conjugate transpose of A.

Theorem 5.1 Let A be a unitary matrix. Then, we have that A−1 is a unitary matrix.

Theorem 5.2 Suppose that A and B are two matrices of the same order such that A and B are unitary. Then,
AB is a unitary matrix.

Remark 5.1 .
The multiplicative group of n × n unitary matrices over C is the so-called unitary group and is denoted by Un (C).

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