CHAPTER 1 – LIFE PROCESSES [CIRCULATORY SYSTEM]
NOTES
BIOLOGY EDUCATOR- DR. MANISHA VERMA
1] All the organisms need to transport water, food, minerals, oxygen to different parts of the body.
They help in the growth and respiration of the cells. The waste products are transported to the
excretory organs for elimination from the body. Plants and animals have different organs and
processes for the transportation of substances.
Circulatory System Excretory System
2] Transport in Human Beings
➢ The human circulatory system consists of a network of arteries, veins, and capillaries, with
the heart pumping blood through it.
➢ Its primary role is to provide essential nutrients, minerals, and hormones to various parts of
the body.
➢ Alternatively, the circulatory system is also responsible for collecting metabolic waste and
toxins from the cells and tissues to be purified or expelled from the body.
3] Structure of Heart:
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➢ In humans, the heart is about the size of a clenched
fist.
➢ The heart is divided into four chambers consisting of
two atria and two ventricles; the atria receive blood,
while the ventricles pump blood.
➢ The heart is composed of three layers: the
epicardium (outer layer), the myocardium (middle layer), and the endocardium (inner layer).
4] Double Circulation:
➢ The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the
superior vena cava, which drains blood from the veins
of the upper organs and arms. The right atrium also
receives blood from the inferior vena cava, which drains
blood from the veins of the lower organs and legs. In
addition, the right atrium receives blood from the
coronary sinus, which drains deoxygenated blood from
the heart itself.
➢ This deoxygenated blood then passes to the right
ventricle through the right atrioventricular valve
(tricuspid valve), a flap of connective tissue that opens
in only one direction to prevent the backflow of blood. After it is filled, the right ventricle
pumps the blood through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs for re-oxygenation. After
blood passes through the pulmonary arteries, the right
semilunar valves close, preventing the blood from
flowing backwards into the right ventricle.
➢ The lungs re-oxygenate the blood and send it to the left
atrium. The left atrium then receives the oxygen-rich
blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins. The valve
separating the chambers on the left side of the heart is
called the bicuspid or mitral valve (left atrioventricular
valve).The blood passes through the bicuspid valve to
the left ventricle where it is pumped out through the
aorta, the major artery of the body, taking oxygenated
blood to the organs and muscles of the body. Once blood is pumped out of the left ventricle
and into the aorta, the aortic semilunar valve (or aortic valve) closes, preventing blood from
flowing backward into the left ventricle.
➢ This pattern of pumping is referred to as double circulation and is found in all mammals.
➢ Birds and mammals – Four-chambered heart, having two auricles and two ventricles.
➢ Reptiles – three-chambered heart (except crocodile which has 4 chambered heart).
➢ Fishes- Two chambered hearts.
➢ Dolphin – Mammal has a four-chambered heart.
➢ Salamander – Amphibian has a three-chambered heart.
Single circulation is the type of circulation in which blood passes through the heart only once
through the heart. For example, it is seen in fishes. Fish is a lower vertebrate with a two chambered
heart. Fish has a two chambered heart comprising of one atrium and one ventricle. Gills help in
purifying the deoxygenated blood. This two chambered heart exhibits single mode of circulation.
Impure blood is pumped to gills for oxygenation. This oxygenated blood from gills is supplied directly
to the body tissues without sending to the heart.
Incomplete double circulation is observed in amphibians and reptiles which have three-chambered
hearts with two atria and one ventricle.
Double circulation is the type of circulation during which blood passes twice through the heart.
Higher vertebrates like birds and mammals exhibit double circulation.
5] Blood
Blood is the body’s fluid connective tissue, and it forms a vital part of the human circulatory system.
Its main function is to circulate nutrients, hormones, minerals and other essential components to
different parts of the body.
Blood flows through a specified set of pathways called blood vessels. The organ which is involved in
pumping blood to different body parts is the heart. Blood cells, blood plasma, proteins, and other
mineral components (such as sodium, potassium and calcium) constitute human blood.
Blood is composed of:
➢ Red blood cells (RBC) / Erythrocytes
Red blood cells are mainly involved in transporting oxygen, nutrients, and other substances to
various parts of the body. These blood cells also remove waste from the body.
➢ White blood cells (WBC) / Leukocytes
White blood cells are specialized cells, which function as a body’s defence system. They provide
immunity by fending off pathogens and harmful microorganisms.
➢ Platelets / Thrombocytes
Platelets are cells that help to form clots and stop bleeding. They act on the site of an injury or a
wound.
6] Lymph:
➢ It is a colourless fluid collected from tissues in most parts of the body and returned to the
blood via the lymphatic system. It is about 95% water. Its composition is similar to plasma of
blood, but contains less protein. Lymph mainly contains white blood cells (mainly
lymphocytes).
➢ Functions of lymph:
❖ It carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess fluid from extracellular
space back into blood.
❖ It supplies mature lymphocytes to the blood.
❖ It acts to remove bacteria and other particles.
❖ It also maintains fluid balance.
7] Heart Beats:
➢ One complete contraction and relaxation of the heart is called a heartbeat.
➢ The heart beat usually beats about 70 to 72 times in a minute when we are resting.
➢ A stethoscope is an apparatus due to which doctors listens our heart beat.
➢ The heart beat faster during and after exercise because the body needs more energy under
these conditions.
8] Pulse:
➢ Every time a heart beats, blood is forced into arteries.
➢ The expansion of an artery each time the blood is forced into it, is called pulse.
➢ So the pulse rate of a person is equal to the number of heart beats per minute. [70 to 72 per
minute]
➢ Most of our arteries lie deep inside our body and hence cannot be used to feel the pulse. But
at some places in our body like the wrist, temple and neck the arteries are close to the
surface of skin and pass over bones. So, we can feel the pulse at wrist, temple and neck by
pressing the arteries lightly with our finger tips.
9] Blood pressure
➢ The pressure at which blood is pumped around the body by the heart is called blood
pressure
➢ The pressure can be systolic pressure during contraction and diastolic pressure at relaxed
state.
➢ The maximum pressure at which the blood leaves the heart through the main artery [aorta]
during contraction phase is called systolic pressure. The minimum pressure in the arteries
during the relaxation phase of heart is called diastolic pressure.
➢ Normal blood pressure is 120/80mmHg. If the blood pressure is less than 100/50 then it is
termed to be low blood pressure or hypotension. If it exceeds 140/90, it is termed to be high
blood pressure or hypertension.
➢ An instrument called the sphygmomanometer is used to measure blood pressure. The
normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg, and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
10] Transport of Oxygen
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➢ During respiration, about 97% of oxygen is transported by Red Blood Cells in the blood and
the remaining 3% gets dissolved in the plasma.
➢ Haemoglobin transports oxygen molecule to all the body cells for cellular respiration.
➢ The haemoglobin pigment present in the blood gets attached to O2 molecules that are
obtained from breathing and thus forms oxyhaemoglobin.
➢ This oxygenated blood is then distributed to all the body cells by the heart.
11] Transport of carbon dioxide
➢ Since haemoglobin pigment has less affinity for CO2, it is mainly transported in the dissolved
form.
➢ This deoxygenated blood gives CO2 to lung alveoli and takes O2 in return.
➢ Around 20-25% of carbon dioxide is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin.
➢ 7% is in a dissolved state in the plasma and the remaining is carried as bicarbonate. Again,
the binding of carbon dioxide with haemoglobin is related to the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide, and the partial pressure of oxygen.
➢ As mentioned earlier, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is high in the tissues and this is
where more binding of carbon dioxide occurs.
➢ The enzyme carbonic anhydrase present in a high concentration in RBCs, and in small
quantities in the plasma, facilitates this reaction in both the directions.
➢ So, the bicarbonate formed at the tissues releases carbon dioxide at the alveoli.
12] TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
The plants have two transport systems:
1. Xylem which carries water and minerals
2. Phloem which carries the food materials which the plant makes
13] TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERALS
➢ The water and minerals dissolved in it move from the roots of the plant to its leaves through
the two kinds of elements of the xylem tissue called:- xylem vessels and tracheid .
➢ Xylem Vessels
❖ The xylem vessel is a non-living, long tube which runs like a
drainpipe through the plant
❖ A xylem vessel is made of many hollow, dead cells (called
vessel elements), joined end to end.
❖ Xylem vessels do not contain the cytoplasm or nuclei.
❖ In flowering plants, either only xylem vessels transport water
or both xylem vessels and tracheid transport water.
➢ Tracheid
❖ Tracheid are long, thin, spindle shaped cells with pits in their
thick cell walls.
❖ Tracheid are dead cells with lignified walls but they do not
have open ends, so they do not form vessels.
❖ Although all the plants have tracheid, they are the only water
conducting tissue in non-flowering plants.
➢ Ascent of Sap: The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to different plant
parts is called ascent of sap.
Many factors are at play in the ascent of sap and it takes place in many steps.
1. Root Pressure: The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin. Water; from soil; enters the root hairs
because of osmosis. Root pressure is responsible for movement of water up to the base of the stem.
2. Capillary Action: A very fine tube is called capillary. Water: or any liquid; rises in the capillary
because of physical forces and his phenomenon is called capillary action. Water; in stem; rises up to
some height because of capillary action.
3. Adhesion-cohesion of Water Molecules: Water molecules make a continuous column in the
xylem because of forces of adhesion and cohesion among the molecules.
4. Transpiration Pull: Loss of water vapour through stomata and lenticels; in plants; is called
transpiration. Transpiration through the stomata creates vacuum which creates a suction; called
transpiration pull. The transpiration pull sucks the water column from the xylem tubes and thus
water is able to rise to great heights in even the tallest plants.
14] TRANSPORT OF FOOD AND OTHER SUBSTANCES
➢ The transport of food from the leaves to other parts of the
plant is called translocation. Thus, phloem translocates the
food (or sugar) made in the leaves.
➢ The movement of food in phloem can be, however, upwards
or downwards depending on the needs of the plant. Like
Sieve tubes which form phloem are living cells which contain
cytoplasm but no nucleus.
➢ Each sieve tube cell has a companion cell next to its xylem
vessels, phloem is made of many cells joined end to end to
form long tubes.