Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding
(Ref: Callister, Raghavan Text books and few
images copied from the internet for your
understanding)
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Introduction
• - Understanding materials begins with atomic structure.
• - Properties of materials are governed by how atoms bond.
• - We study atomic structure, electron configuration, and bonding
types.
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Introduction
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Structure of the Atom
• - Atoms consist of protons (+), neutrons (0),
and electrons (-).
• - Nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
• - Electrons occupy discrete energy levels
(shells) around the nucleus.
• - Atomic number = number of protons.
• - Mass number = protons + neutrons.
protons + neutrons
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Role of atomic structure in materials
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To comprehend the properties of a material and improve those properties, for
example, by adding or removing atoms, we must first understand the role of
atomic structure in materials.
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Electron configuration
Schematic representation of the Bohr atom.
The Number of Available Electron States in Some
Electron configuration for few elements
of the Electron Shells and Subshells
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Remember that the configuration of higher atomic number elements can be stated by
using the previous inert element configuration.
• Atomic bonding and chemical reactions are based on an element's propensity to achieve
the lowest energy stable configuration.
Valence electrons
• Valence electrons are the electrons found in the outer most shell. Atomic bonding and
chemical reaction are the responsibilities of these electrons.
Review the electron configuration of inert gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe) in the
previous table. Unlike most elements, their valence electron cell is totally full.
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Atomic bonding
• The electronic structures of the atoms influence the types of bonds that can form
and how strong those bonds are.
Atomic bonding can be classed into two types: primary and secondary bonding.
• Most of the engineering materials are composed of one of these bonds. Many
characteristics of the materials rely on the particular type of bond and the bond
energy.
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Ionic bond
• Ionic bonds are frequently observed in metal and nonmetal compounds and result from
electrostatic interaction between oppositely charged atoms (ions).
• In Na, there is one electron in the outer shell, but in Cl, there are seven. So, Na will
probably give up one electron to get a stable Ne configuration, and Cl will likely take one
electron to get an Ar configuration.
• Columbic attraction between Na+ and Cl¯ ions forms an ionic bond, resulting in NaCl
formation.
Transfer of e- from one atom to another atom
to make a stable configuration
• Some other examples are CaF2 , CsCl, MgO, Al2O3
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Covalent bond
• In this kind of bonding, atoms share valence electrons with each other to
make a stable configuration.
• Methane (CH4) For every carbon atom, four hydrogen atoms share one of
their valence electrons. For every four hydrogen atoms, the carbon atom
shares one of its valence electrons. Both the H and C atoms get stable and
form a covalent bond during this process.
• Ex: C atoms in diamond are covalently bonded to
each other.
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Metallic bond
• The valence electrons in metals are not actually bound to any one atom;
rather, they form a sea or cloud that is shared by all of the atoms.
• The nuclei and remaining electrons combine to form the positively charged
"ion core."
• The metallic bond is formed by the attraction of the electron cloud and ion
cores, which have opposite charges.
Schematic illustration of metallic bonding 13
Important notes on Primary bonds
• Ionic and covalent bonds have high bond energy (450-1000 KJ/mole).
• In ionic and covalent bond materials, high bond strength leads to high melting point, high
strength, and high hardness. for instance, diamond.
• Since the electrons are strongly bound to the atoms, they are typically not very good heat or
electrical conductors.
• Brittle nature.
• Most ceramics are made up of covalent bonds (SiC) or ionic bonds (Al2O3), or a mix of the
two. Because of this, they have all of the above characteristics.
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• Since the valence electrons can move around freely, metallic bonds are
good at conducting heat and electricity.
• The metallic bond energy is 68 kJ/mol (Hg) on the lower side and 850
kJ/mol (W) on the higher side.
• Since there are more electrons available to form bonds with the ion
cores, bond strength rises with atomic number. Melting point, hardness,
and strength consequently rise with atomic number.
• Because of the free-moving electrons that provide the bonds flexibility
and permit plastic deformation, metals are ductile.
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% ionic character
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Secondary bonds
VanderWaals bonding: We can see mostly in polymers.
• In contrast to primary bonds, van der Waals bonds are far weaker. The range of bond
energy is 2 to 10 kJ/mol.
• Molecules in liquid and gas are held by weak Vanderwaals forces.
• Van der Waals bonds, which are weak, hold the atomic layers of graphite together. As
a result, the layers can move over one another with ease, providing the lubricating
property. Graphite is well-known for.
Hydrogen bonding:
• The strength of hydrogen bonds is in the range of 10 - 50 kJ/mol
• Water molecules, for example, are connected by hydrogen bonds.
Read Callister Text book for further info……..
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Bond Characteristics
• - Ionic: High melting point, brittle, good insulators.
• - Covalent: Strong, directional bonds, variable conductivity.
• - Metallic: Good conductors, ductile, opaque.
• - Van der Waals: Weakest, found in molecular solids and noble gases.
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Bonding forces and energies
Electron,
- ve charge)
Nucleus (Proton,
+ ve charge)
Atom ‘X’ Atom ‘Y’
A: Attractive
R: Repulsive
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Slope of the curve
Depth of of the curve
Slope of the Force vs. r curve and Depth of the Energy vs. r curve provide
the materials properties information as discussed in the class.
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Summary
• - Atomic structure determines bonding and material properties.
• - Bonding affects electrical, thermal, and mechanical behavior.
• - Understanding bonding helps in material selection and design.
Read Callister and Raghavan Text books for further info……..
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