Gastrointestinal Anatomy and Physiology Notes
Introduction
The gastrointestinal (GI) system is a specialized part of the alimentary system responsible for
digestion, absorption, and elimination. It is composed of a long muscular tube (mouth to anus)
and associated accessory organs. Its physiology is regulated by neural and hormonal mechanisms
to ensure efficient nutrient handling.
Anatomy of the Gastrointestinal Tract
1. Mouth and Oral Cavity
Structures: Lips, tongue, teeth, salivary glands.
Function:
o Ingestion of food.
o Mastication (mechanical breakdown).
o Saliva: lubricates food, contains salivary amylase (starch digestion).
o Tongue: aids swallowing, taste sensation.
2. Pharynx and Esophagus
Pharynx: Shared passage for food and air, initiates swallowing reflex.
Esophagus:
o Muscular tube (~25 cm).
o Upper and lower esophageal sphincters regulate passage.
o Peristalsis propels food to stomach.
3. Stomach
Gross anatomy: Cardia, fundus, body, pylorus.
Mucosa: Gastric pits with parietal cells (HCl, intrinsic factor), chief cells (pepsinogen),
mucous cells.
Function:
o Temporary storage.
o Mechanical churning.
o Protein digestion begins (pepsin).
o Secretes intrinsic factor for vitamin B12 absorption.
4. Small Intestine
Regions: Duodenum, jejunum, ileum.
Structure: Lined with villi and microvilli (brush border) to increase surface area.
Function:
o Major site of digestion and absorption.
o Duodenum: receives bile and pancreatic juice.
o Jejunum: absorbs most nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids).
o Ileum: absorbs bile salts, vitamin B12.
5. Large Intestine
Parts: Cecum, ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid colon, rectum, anus.
Function:
o Absorbs water and electrolytes.
o Houses gut microbiota (synthesizes vitamin K, B vitamins).
o Forms and stores feces.
6. Accessory Organs
Liver: Produces bile, stores glycogen, detoxifies blood, synthesizes plasma proteins.
Gallbladder: Stores and releases bile into duodenum.
Pancreas:
o Exocrine: digestive enzymes (lipase, amylase, proteases).
o Endocrine: insulin and glucagon (blood glucose regulation).
Physiology of the Gastrointestinal System
1. Digestive Processes
Ingestion: Taking in food and drink.
Propulsion: Swallowing and peristalsis.
Mechanical digestion: Chewing, churning, segmentation.
Chemical digestion: Enzymatic breakdown of macromolecules.
Absorption: Transport of nutrients into blood/lymph.
Defecation: Elimination of indigestible material.
2. Regulation
Neural control:
o Enteric nervous system (“gut brain”).
o Parasympathetic stimulation increases motility and secretion.
o Sympathetic stimulation inhibits digestion.
Hormonal control:
o Gastrin: stimulates gastric acid secretion.
o Secretin: stimulates bicarbonate from pancreas, bile from liver.
o Cholecystokinin (CCK): stimulates gallbladder contraction, pancreatic enzyme
secretion.
3. Absorption of Nutrients
Carbohydrates: broken down to monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose).
Proteins: broken down to amino acids, absorbed via active transport.
Lipids: emulsified by bile salts, absorbed as micelles, reassembled into chylomicrons,
transported via lymph.
Vitamins/Minerals:
o Fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) absorbed with lipids.
o Water-soluble absorbed via diffusion or carriers.
o Vitamin B12 absorbed in ileum with intrinsic factor.
Clinical Relevance
GERD: Dysfunction of lower esophageal sphincter → acid reflux.
Peptic ulcer: Damage to gastric/duodenal mucosa (often H. pylori related).
Liver disease: Cirrhosis, hepatitis impair bile production and detoxification.
Gallstones: Block bile flow → pain, jaundice, fat malabsorption.
Malabsorption syndromes: e.g., celiac disease, lactose intolerance.
Summary
The gastrointestinal tract is a complex system where structure and function are closely
integrated. Its main roles include:
Breaking down food into absorbable components.
Absorbing nutrients for cellular metabolism.
Coordinating neural and hormonal control.
Eliminating waste efficiently.