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Module-1
VehicleMechanics
1. RoadwayFundamentals
A vehicle moves on a level road and also up and down the slope of a roadway. We can simplify
ourdescription of the roadway by considering a straight roadway. Furthermore, we will define
atangential coordinate system that moves along with the vehicle, with respect to a fixed two
two-
dimensionalsystem.
The roadway description will be utilized to calculate the distance traversed by a vehicle along
theroadway.
eroadway. The fixed coordinate system is attached to the earth such that the force of gravity
ectorI˙F¯[Link] us considerast
isperpendicular to theunit vector iderastraight roadway, i.e.,
the steering wheel is locked straight along the XF direction. The roadway is then in the
XFYFplaneofthefixedcoordinate system (Fig.)
The two-dimensional
dimensional roadway can be described as yF=f(XF). The roadway position vector
betweentwopointsa andbalongthehorizontal directionis
Thedistance-normofthetangent
normofthetangent vector
Theroadwaypercentgradeistheverticalriseper100horizontaldistanceofroadway,withbothdistan
roadwaypercentgradeistheverticalriseper100horizontaldistanceofroadway,withbothdistan
ces expressed in the same units. The angle β of the roadway associated with the slope orgrade
is the angle between the tangent vector and the horizontal axis XF (Figure 2.2 2.2). If ∆y is
theverticalrise inmeters,then
Thetangentoftheslopeangleis
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The percent grade, or β, is greater than zero when the vehicle is on an upward slope and is
lessthanzero when the vehicle is going downhill. The roadway percent grade can be
described as afunctionoftheroadway,as
2. LawsofMotion
Newton’ssecondlawofmotioncan
Newton’ssecondlawofmotioncanbeexpressedinequationformasfollows:
Where
is the net force, m is the effective mass, and ā is the acceleration. The law is applied to the
vehicle by considering a number of objects located at several points of contact of the vehicle
with theoutsideworldonwhichtheindividual
onwhichtheindividual forcesact.
Examples of such points of contact are the front and rear wheels touching the roadway
surface and vehicle, the frontal area that meets the force from air resistance, etc. We will
simplify theproblem by merging all of these poi
points
nts of contact into one location at the center of
gravity (cg) of the EV and HEV, which is justified, because the extent of the object is
immaterial. For all of theforce calculations to follow, we will consider the vehicle to be a
particle mass located at th
the cg
[Link],asshownin Figure2.3.
Particle motion is described by particle velocity and acceleration characteristics. For
the position vector for the particle mass on which several forces are working, as
shown inFigure2.4,thevelocity
Figure2.4,thevelocity vandaccelerationaare
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The power input to the particle for the ith force is
where θ is the angle between Fi and the resultant velocity v. For a rigid body rotating about
afixed axis, the equivalent terms relating motion and power are torque, angular velocity,
andangular acceleration. Let there be i independent torques acting on a rigid body, causing
it to rotate about an axis of rotation, as shown in Figure 2.5. If J (unit: kg
kg-m2) is the polar
moment ofinertiaoftherigid bobody,thentherotationalformofNewton’ssecondlaw
dy,thentherotationalformofNewton’ssecondlaw ofmotionis
VehicleKinetics
The tangential direction of forward motion of a vehicle changes with the slope of the roadway.
Tosimplify the equations, a tangential coordinate system is defined below, so that tthe forces
actingon the vehicle can be defined through a one directional equation. Let ūT(XF) be the unit
tangent vector in the fixed coordinate system pointing in the direction of increasing XF.
Therefore
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The tangential coordinate system shown in Figurehas the same origin as the fixed
coordinatesystem. The z-direction
direction unit vector is the same as that in the fixed coordinate
system, but the x-and y-direction
direction vectors constantly change with the slope of the roadway.
Newton’s second law of motion can now be applied to the cg of EV in the tangential
coordinate system as
where m is the effective vehicle mass. The components of the coordinate
system are: Component tangent to the road:
Component normal to the road:
And, because motion is assumed to be confined to the xTyT plane
The vehicle tangential velocity is vxT. The gravitational force in the normal direction
is balanced by the road reaction force and, hence, there will be no motion in the
yTnormal direction. In otherwords, the tire always remains in contact with the road.
The propulsion unit of the vehicle exerts a tractive force, FTR, to propel the vehicle forward
at adesired velocity. The tractive force must overcome the opposing forces, which are
summedtogetherand labeled as the road load force, FRL. The road load force consists
cons of the
gravitationalforce, rolling resistance of the tires, and the aerodynamic drag force. The road
load force is as follows:
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Where xT is the tangential direction along the roadway. The forces acting on the vehicle
are shown in below Figure.
The rolling resistance is produced by the hysteresis of the tire at the contact surface with
theroadway. In a stationary tire, the normal force to the road balances the distributed weight
borneby the wheel at the point of contact along the vevertical
rtical line beneath the axle. When the
tire rolls,the centroid of the vertical forces on the wheel moves forward from beneath the
axle toward thedirection of motion of the vehicle, as shown in Figure 2.8. The weight on the
wheel and the roadnormal force ar aree misaligned due to the hysteresis of the tire. They form a
couple that exerts aretarding torque on the wheel. The rolling resistance force, Froll, is the
force due to the couple, which opposes the motion of the wheel
DynamicsofVehicleMotion
Tractive force is the force between the vehicle’s tires and the road (and parallel to the road)
supplied by the electric motor in an EV and by the combination of electric motor and IC
engine in an HEV to overcome the road load. The dynamic equation of motion in the
tangential direction is given byy
Where km is the rotational inertia coefficient to compensate for the apparent increase in the
vehicle’s mass due to the onboard rotating mass. The typical values of km are between 1.08
and 1.1,and it is dimensionless. The acceleration of the vehicle is dvXT/dt.
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Dynamic equations can be represented in the state space format for simulation of an EV or
HEVsystem. The motion described by Equation 2.5 is the fundamental equation required for
dynamic simulation of the vehicle system. One of the state variables of the vehicle dynamical
system is vxT.
The second equation needed for modeling and simulation is the velocity equation, where
either sorxF can be used as the state variable. The slope of the roadway β will be an input to
thesimulation model, which may be ggiveniven in terms of the tangential roadway distance as
β=β(s) orin terms of the horizontal distance as β=β(xF). If β is given in terms of s, then the
second statevariableequationis
Ifβ isgivenintermsofxF,thenthesecondstatevariableequationis
The input-output relational diagram for simulating vehicle kinetics is shown in Figure2.9
Propulsion Power
The torque at the wheels of the vehicle can be obtained from the power relation:
where TTR is the tractive torque in NN-m, and ωwh is the angular velocity of the wheel in
rad/s. FTR is in N, and vxT is in m/s. Assuming no slip between the tires and the road, the
angularvelocityandthe vehiclespeedarerelatedby
where rwh is the radius of the wheel in meters. The losses between the propulsion unit and
wheelsinthe transmission and the differential have to be appropriately accounted for when
specifying the power requirement of the propulsion unit.
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An advantage of an electrically driven propulsion system is the elimination of multiple gears
tomatch the vehicle speed and the engine speed. The wide speed range operation of electric
motorsenabled by power electronics control makes it possible to use a single gear gear-ratio
transmission forinstantaneous matching of the available motor torque Tmotor with the
desired tractive torque TTR. Thegear ratio and the size depend on the maximum motor speed,
the maximum vehicle speed, the wheel radius, and the available traction between the tires and
the road. A higher motor speed relative to the vehicle speed means a higher geargear-ratio, larger
size, and higher cost. However, higher motor speed is also desired in order to increase the
power density of the [Link], a compromise is necessary between the maximum
motor speed and the gear-ratio
ratio tooptimize the cost. Planetary gears are typically used for EVs,
with the gear-ratio
ratio rarely exceedingten.
Force-Velocity Characteristics
For an efficient design of the propulsion unit, the designer must know the force required
toaccelerate the vehicle to a cruising speed within a certain time and then to propel the
vehicleforward
forward at the rated steady state cruising speed and at the maximum speed on a
specified [Link] design information is contained in the vehicle speed versus time and
the steady state tractive force versus constant velocity characteristics, illustrated in Figures
2.10 and 2.11.
we will always assume the velocity to be in the tangential direction and denote it by v instead
ofvxT for simplicity. The steady state constant velocity will be denoted by the uppercase
letter V.
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Tractive force versus steady state velocity characteristics can be obtained from the equation of
motion
When the steady state velocity is reached, dv/dt=0; and, hence, ΣF=[Link],wehave
The first equation reveals that the slope of FTR versus V is always positive, meaning that
theforce requirement increases as the vehicle speed increases, which is primarily due to
theaerodynamic drag force opposing vehicle motion. Also, discontinuity of the curves at
zero velocity is due to the rolling resistance force.
Maximum Gradability
The maximum grade that a vehicle will be able to overcome with the maximum force
available from the propulsion unit is an important design criterion as well as performance
measure. Thevehicle is expected to move forward very slowly when climbing a steep slope
and, hence, we can make the following assumptions for maximum gradability:
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Velocity and Acceleration
The energy required from the propulsion unit depends on the desired acceleration and the
road load force that the vehicle has to overcome.
Maximum acceleration is limited by the maximum tractive power available and the
roadway condition at the time of vehicle operation. Although the road load force is
unknown in a real world roadway, significant insight about the vehicle velocity profile
and energy requirement can be obtained through studies of assumed scenarios.
Vehicles are typically designed with a certain objective, such as maximum acceleration on a
givenroadway slope in a typical weather condition. Discussed in the following are two
simplified scenarios that will set the stage for designing EVs and HEVs.
Constant FTR, Level Road
In the first case, we will assume a level road condition, where the propulsion unit for an EV
exerts a constant tractive force. The level road condition implies that β (s) =0. We will
assumethat
that the EV is initially at rest, which implies v(0)=0. The free body diagram at t=0 is
shown inFigure.
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Velocity Profile
The velocity profile for the constant FTR level road case (Figure) can be obtained by solving
for v from the dv/dt equation above, which gives
The terminal velocity can be obtained by taking the limit of the velocity profile as
time approaches infinity. The terminal velocity is
DistanceTraversed
The distance traversed by the vehicle can be obtained from the following relation:
The distance as a function of time is obtained by integrating the above equation:
The starting acceleration is often specified as 0 to vfm/s in tfs, where vfis the desired velocity
at the end of the specified time tfs. The time to reach the desired velocity is given by
And the distance traversed during the time to reach the desired velocity is given by
The desired time can also be expressed as follows:
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where vf the velocity after time tf
Let tVT=timetoreach98%oftheterminal velocity [Link]
TractivePower
Energy Required
The energy requirement for a given acceleration and constant steady state velocity is
necessary for the design and selection of the energy source or batteries to cover a certain
distance. The rate of change of energy is the tractive power, given as
where eTR is the instantaneous
eous tractive energy. The energy required or energy change during
an interval of the vehicle can be obtained from the integration of the instantaneous power
equation as
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Non-constant FTR, General Acceleration
In the general case, with a non-constant
constant FTR and an arbitrary velocity profile, as shown in fig., force
can be calculated as follows:
The energy supplied by the propulsion unit is converted into various forms of energy, some of
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which are stored in the vehicle system, while others are lost due to non
non--constructive forces. It
is interesting to note the type of energy associated with each term in Equation 2.23. Let us
consider the first term on the right side of Equation 2.23:
The above term represents change in vertical displacement multiplied by mg, which is the
change in potential energy. The third and fourth terms on the right side of Equation 2.23
represent the energy required to overcome non non-constructive
constructive forces that include rolling
resistance and aerodynamic dr
drag force. The energy represented in these terms is essentially
the loss term.
Therefore,
Propulsion System Design
The steady state maximum velocity, maximum gradability, and velocity equations can be
used in the design stage to specify the power requirement of a part particular vehicle. The
common designrequirements related to vehicle power expected to be specified by a customer
are the initial acceleration, rated velocity on a given slope, maximum % grade, and maximum
steady state velocity. The complete design is a complex issue involving numerous variables,
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constraints, considerations, and judgment.
Let us consider the tractive power requirement for initial acceleration, which plays a
significant role in determining the rated power of the propulsion unit. The initial acceleration
is specified as 0 to vf in tfs. The design problem is to solve for FTR, starting with a set of
variables including vehicle mass, rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag coefficient, percent
grade, wheel radius, etc.,some of which are known, while others have to be assumed. The
acceleration of the vehicle in terms of these variables is given by
The tractive force output of the electric motor for an EV or the combination of electric motor
and ICengine for an HEV will be a function of vehicle velocity. F Furthermore,
urthermore, the road
loadcharacteristics are a function of velocity, resulting in a transcendental equation to be
solved todetermine the desired tractive power from the propulsion unit. Other design
requirements also play a significant role in determining tractive power.
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