Current sensitivity, defined as the deflection per unit current, is given by I_s = NBA / K, where NBA is the magnetic field interaction factor and K is the spring's torsional constant. Voltage sensitivity, defined as deflection per unit potential difference, is given by V_s = NBA / KR, where R is the resistance of the galvanometer . Increasing the number of turns N doubles current sensitivity (since it is directly proportional to N) but does not affect voltage sensitivity if the resistance also doubles, hence due to the lengthening of the coil . Thus, coil modifications affect these sensitivities differently depending on the changes in both coil turns and the corresponding resistance changes.

An ideal voltmeter should have infinite resistance to ensure it draws negligible current from the circuit, thus not affecting the circuit's potential difference. In practice, using a moving coil galvanometer, this is achieved by connecting a high resistance in series with the galvanometer. This high resistance restricts the current to a safe level required for full-scale deflection, maintaining the voltmeter's function without significantly altering the measured voltage . The total resistance of this configuration is R+G, where R is the high series resistance and G is the galvanometer's resistance .

The operation of a moving coil galvanometer is based on the principle that a current-carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque. This torque depends on the current flowing through the coil, the area of the coil, the number of turns, and the strength of the magnetic field, and is given by the equation τ = NiAB, where N is the number of turns, i is the current, A is the area, and B is the magnetic field strength . The torque causes the coil to rotate, producing an angular deflection proportional to the current .

In the conversion of a galvanometer to an ammeter, the total resistance of the setup becomes significantly lower due to the parallel addition of a shunt resistance. The effective resistance, RA, for the ammeter is given by R_A = GS / (G + S), where G is the galvanometer’s resistance and S is the shunt resistance, ensuring R_A << G . This low resistance is significant because it minimizes the voltage drop across the ammeter, reducing its impact on the circuit and allowing it to measure higher currents accurately without altering the circuit's current flow .

A moving coil galvanometer is constructed with a soft iron core to make the magnetic field radial and to increase field strength, enhancing sensitivity and accuracy. The coil, composed of many turns, is suspended from a fixed axis and can rotate freely within this magnetic field. The phosphor-bronze hair springs provide a radial restoring torque and serve as current leads, ensuring precise torque balance and reliable current detection. The deflecting torque is opposed by this restoring torque until equilibrium, allowing the deflection to be proportional to current, thus enhancing precision and sensitivity in measurement .

When converting a galvanometer to an ammeter, a small resistance called the shunt is connected in parallel with the galvanometer coil. The shunt allows most of the current to pass through it, so only a small, safe current passes through the galvanometer, preventing it from damage due to excess current. The value of the shunt resistance is calculated using the equation S = I_gG / (I - I_g), where I_g is the current that gives full-scale deflection in the galvanometer and G is its resistance . This parallel connection ensures the potential difference across the galvanometer is the same as across the shunt, making the combination effectively a low-resistance galvanometer .

The soft iron core in a moving coil galvanometer design serves two main purposes: it makes the magnetic field radial, which ensures that the coil experiences a consistent magnetic field interaction over its entire range of motion, and it increases the strength of the magnetic field. This enhances the sensitivity and accuracy of the galvanometer by providing a greater deflection per unit current .

To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter, a high resistance is connected in series with it, effectively increasing the total resistance of the device. This high resistance is adjusted so that the galvanometer passes only the current needed for full-scale deflection. This configuration, using R + G total resistance (with R being the series resistance and G the galvanometer's own resistance), ensures the voltmeter has a very high resistance, thus drawing minimal current from the circuit. This is crucial because it helps maintain the accuracy of potential difference measurement across two points in the circuit without impacting the overall circuit operation .

The restoring torque in a galvanometer is essential to bring the deflected coil back to its equilibrium position and ensure that the deflection is proportional to the current. It is generated by the elasticity of the phosphor-bronze hair springs and opposes the deflecting torque. The restoring torque is calculated as τ_restoring = Kα, where K is the torsional constant of the spring and α is the angular deflection. In equilibrium, this restoring torque equals the deflecting torque, allowing the relationship NBAi = Kα to determine the current deflection proportionally .

Increasing the current sensitivity of a galvanometer, defined as deflection per unit current, is achieved by increasing the number of coil turns, which directly impacts current sensitivity as I_s = NBA / K. However, this increase in turns also increases the galvanometer's resistance because resistance is proportional to coil length, maintaining the same voltage sensitivity since V_s = NBA / KR. Thus, while current sensitivity increases, the increased resistance keeps the voltage sensitivity constant despite additional coil turns, as the larger resistance counterbalances the increase in NBA .