SECTION 6
6. PRESSURE BASICS
6.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUIDS AND PRESSURE
6.2 FORMATION PRESSURE
6.3 FORMATION FRACTURE PRESSURE
6.4 FORMATION INTEGRITY TESTS
6.5 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULUS SURFACE
PRESSURE - MAASP
6.6 CIRCULATING PRESSURE LOSSES
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PRESSURE BASICS
6. PRESSURE BASICS
6.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUIDS AND PRESSURE
Understanding pressures and pressure relationships is important in understanding well
control. Pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted by a fluid i.e.:
Force
Pressure = ––––
Area
Therefore, the formula can be changed to calculate the force from a given pressure and a
unit area:
Force = Pressure x Area
In the oilfield, pressure is usually expressed as the pounds of force that is applied against
a one square inch area, i.e. pounds per square inch (psi.).Therefore, when a gas is placed
in a pressure tight container, it exerts a pressure on all sides of the container. If the gas
pressure is 100 psi., it exerts a force of 100 pounds (lbs.) on each square inch of the
container area. Similarly, if a liquid is placed in a can, it exerts a pressure on the sides and
bottom of the container due to the weight of the liquid which is also expressed as psi. In
well control, both of these effects are of the utmost importance.
Pressure can be expressed as absolute or as gauge pressure. Absolute pressure includes
atmospheric pressure which is also applied due to the weight of the atmosphere and is
14.7 psi. Some gauges, especially BHP gauges, are calibrated in absolute terms, but
regular gauges showing psig. indicate they have been calibrated at atmospheric pressure
and the 14.7 psi. is excluded. Although this is a relatively small amount and can be
ignored in most instances, it is important when gathering data for reservoir analysis.
6.1.1 Fluid Pressure
A fluid is any substance that is not solid and can flow. Liquids, like water and oil are fluids.
Gas is also a fluid. Under certain conditions, salt, steel and rock can become fluid and in fact
almost any solid can become fluid under extreme pressure and temperature. In well control,
fluids such as gas, oil, water and completion fluids, brines and mud are encountered.
Fluids exert pressure which is caused by the density, or weight of the fluid. This is
normally expressed in pounds per gallon (ppg) or pounds per cubic foot ( lbs./ft.3 ). Other
abbreviations for these are lbs/gal and ppf 3 .
As the pressure developed by a fluid is relative to the true vertical depth, it is often
expressed as psi. per foot (psi./ft.). This is termed the fluid’s pressure gradient. The
pressure gradient for a fluid is relative to the fluid’s weight or density. The higher the
density, the higher the pressure gradient. To understand this relationship, it is helpful to
visualize a cubic foot of fluid; See Figure 6.1.
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PRESSURE BASICS
Figure 6.1 - Fluid Pressure Diagram
A cubic foot contains 7.48 US gallons.
Therefore, a fluid weighing 1 ppg would weigh 7.48 lbs.
The pressure exerted on the base (area) is:
7.48 lbs.
–––––––
1 ft.2
= 7.48 lbs./ft.2
1 ft.2 = 12 ins. x 12 ins. area = 144 ins.2, therefore the pressure per ins.2 is
7.48 lbs.
–––––––2 = 0.052 psi.
144 ins.
This relationship between a fluid weight in ppg and gradient pressure in psi./ft. is always
the same, therefore 0.052 is a constant.
Example:
The pressure gradient of a 10 ppg fluid = 10 ppg x 0.052 = 0.52 psi./ft.
Example:
The weight of a fluid (fresh water) which has a gradient of 0.433 psi./ft.
0.433 psi./ft
–––––––––– = 8.33 ppg.
0.052
This constant is probably the most useful constant used in calculations.
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PRESSURE BASICS
6.1.2 Specific Gravity
Many fluids in the oilfield are also expressed in specific gravity (SG) as well as weight in
ppg. It is also necessary to be able to convert SG to pressure gradient in order to calculate
hydrostatic pressures.
SG is the ratio of the weight of a fluid (liquid) to the weight of fresh water. Fresh water weighs
8.33 ppg and salt water is nominally valued at 10 ppg. Therefore, the SG of salt water is:
10ppg
SG of Salt Water = ––––– = 1.2 8.3ppg
The SG of fresh water is 1.0. As the gradient of fresh water is known to be 0.433 psi./ft.,
to obtain the gradient of a fluid, it is simply necessary to multiply its SG by 0.433 psi./ft.
Example:
What is the hydrostatic pressure (HP) exerted by a true vertical 5,000 ft. column of brine
with an SG of 1.17?
HP of brine = 1.17 x 0.433 psi./ft. x 5,000 ft.
= 2,533 psi.
6.1.3 API Gravity
API gravity is another value used to express relative weight of fluids and was introduced
by the American Petroleum Institute to standardize the weight of oilfield fluids at a base
temperature of 60˚ F. Water in this case was also used as the standard and assigned the
value of 10 API gravity.
To convert from specific gravity to API gravity, the following formula is used.
141.5 SG
= ––––––––––
131.5 + API
Example:
What is the SG of 30˚ API oil?
141.5
SG = ––––––––– =0.876
131.5 + 30˚
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PRESSURE BASICS
6.1.4 Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure (HP) is the pressure developed by a fluid at a given true vertical
depth in a well. ‘Hydro’ means water, or fluids which exert pressure like water and
‘static’ means motionless. So hydrostatic pressure is the pressure created by a stationary
column of fluid. The hydrostatic pressure of any fluid can be calculated at any true
vertical depth (TVD) provided the pressure gradient of the fluid is known.
The previous calculations have dealt with fluid pressure with a gradient of one foot depth
but it is now simple to determine the pressure exerted by a fluid at any true vertical depth
by multiplying that pressure gradient by the true vertical height of the column in feet. The
true vertical height of the column is the important factor in the equation, as it’s volume or
shape is irrelevant.
The equation is: HP = PG x TVD
where:
HP = Hydrostatic pressure, psi.
PG = Pressure gradient, psi./ft.
TVD = True Vertical Depth, ft.
Figure 6.2 - Measured Depth verses True Vertical Depth
Example:
A 500 ft. TVD column of fresh water, what is the hydrostatic pressure ?
HP = 0.433 psi./ft. x 500 ft.
= 216.5 psi.
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Example:
What is the hydrostatic pressure of a 6,750 ft. well, filled with a 0.478 psi./ft. pressure
gradient fluid which has a TVD of 6,130 ft. ?
HP = 0.478 psi./ft. x 6,130 ft.
= 2,930 psi.
Example:
A 12,764 ft. TVD well is filled with a 15 ppg fluid, what is the BHP?
HP = 15 ppg x 0.052 x 12,764 ft.
= 9,956 psi.
Equipped with this knowledge, it is now easy to calculate the hydrostatic pressure with
two of more fluids in a well provided the depths (TVD) of the fluid interfaces are known.
Using the same formula, the HP for each fluid section is calculated in the same way and
the sum of the individual calculations gives the HP at the bottom-hole or well.
Example:
A 10,500 ft. TVD well has two fluids in the well, a 15 ppg fluid from TD to 7,125 ft. and
8.33 ppg fluid to surface, what is the HP at the bottom of the well ?
HP of 15 ppg fluid = 15 ppg x 0.052 x (10,500 - 7,125) ft.
= 15 ppg x 0.052 x 3,375 ft.
= 2,633 psi.
HP of 8.33 ppg fluid = 8.33 ppg x 0.052 x 7,125 ft.
= 3,086 psi.
Total HP = 2,613 psi. + 3,086 psi.
= 5,719 psi.
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PRESSURE BASICS
6.1.5 Gas Correction Factors
Most well servicing operations entails working with live wells whether using a through-
tubing method or rig intervention. Even with a rig operation, the well must be prepared by
being killed prior to the intervention. This involves dealing with gas in the well.
Production wells with gas in the fluids will exert a static surface pressure equal to the formation
pressure less the hydrostatic pressure in the production bore. The gas entrained in the productions
fluids will segregate from the liquids as shown in Figure 6.3. In a static situation, the closed in
tubing head pressure (CITHP) and hydrostatic pressure will balance the formation pressure.
As discussed earlier, gas is also a fluid and exerts a hydrostatic pressure. Being
compressible pressure affects the density of the gas. A set of correction factors are used
which are used to calculate hydrostatic pressures at varying TVDs with a range of gas
gravities, refer to Table 6.1. The correction factor, according to the TVD of the gas
column and the gas gravity, is multiplied by the CITHP:
HP = (Correction factor-1) x CITHP or
Total Gas Pressure = Correction Factor x CITHP i.e. surface pressure + gas hydrostatic
Example:
What is the HP of a 5,000 [Link] column of 0.7 SG gas with a closed in tubing head
pressure of 1,650 psi?
HP of gas = (1.129-1) x 1,650 psi.
= 212.85psi.
Using the calculations already given in earlier sections and the gas correction factors,
hydrostatic pressures in relatively complicated systems can now be determined.
Example:
What is the differential pressure between the annulus and tubing at a circulation device
installed at a depth of 8,200 ft. TVD in the tubing string ?
• The following are the well conditions:
• The tubing/casing annulus is filled with a 10.29 ppg brine.
• The well is shut in at surface with a CITHP of 600 psi.
• There is a gas cap of 0.6 SG gas from 4,000 ft.
• There is 32 API oil from 4,000 ft. to 12,000 ft.
To help in the calculation, it is sometimes better to make a sketch; See Figure 6.3.
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PRESSURE BASICS
600 CITHP
0.6 SG Gas
Annulus Fluid 77 lbs/cu ft
Gas/Oil Interface @ 4000 ft
32 API Oil
Circulating Point @ 8,200 ft
Packer
Figure 6.3 - Example of Production Well
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PRESSURE
BASICS
Well Depth Correction Factors
0.6 Gravity 0.7 Gravity 0.8 Gravity 0.9 Gravity
3,000 1.064 1.075 1.087 1.098
3,500 1.075 1.089 1.102 1.115
4,000 1.087 1.102 1.117 1.133
4,500 1.098 1.115 1.133 1.151
5,000 1.110 1.129 1.149 1.169
5,500 1.121 1.143 1.165 1.187
6,000 1.133 1.157 1.181 1.206
6,500 1.145 1.171 1.197 1.224
7,000 1.157 1.185 1.214 1.244
7,500 1.169 1.204 1.232 1.264
8,000 1.181 1.214 1.248 1.282
8,500 1.193 1.239 1.266 1.304
9,000 1.206 1.244 1.282 1.324
9,500 1.218 1.259 1.302 1.345
10,000 1.232 1.275 1.320 1.366
10,500 1.244 1.289 1.338 1.388
11,000 1.257 1.306 1.357 1.410
11,500 1.270 1.322 1.376 1.433
12,000 1.282 1.338 1.395 1.455
12,500 1.297 1.354 1.415 1.477
13,000 1.311 1.371 1.434 1.500
13,500 1.324 1.388 1.455 1.523
14,000 1.338 1.405 1.475 1.548
14,500 1.352 1.422 1.495 1.573
15,000 1.366 1.438 1.515 1.596
Table 6.1 - Gas Correction Factors
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PRESSURE BASICS
HP of brine in annulus at circulation device:
= 10.29 ppg x 0.052 x 8,200 ft.
= 4,387 psi.
HP of gas cap: = (1.087 (from table)-1) x 600 psi.
= 52 psi.
HP of oil column
141.5
Oil SG = ––––––––
131.5 + 32
= 0.865
HP of oil column = 0.865 SG x 0.433 psi./ft. x (8,200 - 4,000) ft.
= 1,575 psi.
Total HP in tubing = HP of gas + HP of oil
= 52 psi. + 1,575 psi.
= 1,627 psi.
BHP in tubing = surface + HP of gas + HP of oil
= 600 + 1,627
= 2227 psi
Differential pressure across circulation device
= HP of annulus - HP of tubing
= 4,387 psi. - 2,227 psi.
= 2,160 psi.
If the circulation device were to be opened, then the opening tool string would be exposed
to 2,160 psi. differential pressure. If using wireline, this pressure differential would need
to be equalized before opening the device.
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PRESSURE BASICS
6.2 FORMATION PRESSURE
Some rocks contain fluids like water, oil and gas which are contained in tiny openings or
pores. In a rock with pores, the measurement of the ratio of the pore volume to volume of
the rock material is termed ‘porosity’. The linkage between pores is the flow path for any
fluids and is extremely important, e.g. a rock with many large pores which are not
interconnected will not have any flow potential to the hole drilled into the formation, i.e.
the fluids would be locked in place. The interconnection of pores make the rock
permeable and the measurement of this factor is termed ‘permeability’.
Formation pressure is the pressure of the fluids contained in the pores of a formation rock
and are classified into three categories:
• Normal
• Subnormal
• Abnormal.
Formation pressure or pore pressure is said to be normal when it is caused solely by the
hydrostatic head of the sub-surface water contained in the formations and there is pore to
pore pressure communication with the atmosphere.
Dividing this pressure by the true vertical depth gives an average pressure gradient of the
formation fluid, normally between 0.433 psi./ft. and 0.465 psi./ft. The North Sea area
pore pressure averages 0.452 psi./ft. In the absence of accurate data, 0.465 psi./ft., which
is the average pore pressure gradient in the Gulf of Mexico, is often taken to be the
‘normal’ pressure gradient.
NOTE: The point at which atmospheric contact is established may not
necessarily be at sea-level or rig site level.
Prior to a well intervention, all the well’s parameters are generally well known and the risk of
encountering unexpected formation pressures is small. If there is any doubt over formation
pressure, a BHP survey should be conducted as the first operation in the programme.
6.2.1 Sub-normal Formation Pressure
Subnormal pressures occur in formations where the pressure gradient is less than
‘normal’. These are found mainly in mountainous areas or in producing formations where
fluids have been extracted reducing the formation pressure.
6.2.2 Normal Formation Pressure
Normal Formation Pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of water extending from
the surface to the subsurface formation. Thus, the normal formation pressure gradient in
any area will be equal to the hydrostatic pressure gradient of the water occupying the pore
spaces of the subspace formations in that area.
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PRESSURE BASICS
The magnitude of the hydrostatic pressure gradient is affected by the concentration of
dissolved solids (salts) and gases in the formation water. Increasing the dissolved solids
(higher salt concentration) increases the formation pressure gradient whilst an increase in
the level of gases in solution will decrease the pressure gradient.
For example, formation water with a salinity of 80,000 ppm sodium chloride (common
salt) at a temperature of 25˚C has a pressure gradient of 0.465 psi./ft. Fresh water (zero
salinity) has a pressure gradient of 0.433 psi./ft.
Temperature also has an effect as hydrostatic pressure gradients will decrease at higher
temperatures due to fluid expansion.
In formations deposited in an offshore environment, formation water density may vary
from slightly saline (0.44 psi./ft.) to saturated saline (0.515 psi./ft.). Salinity varies with
depth and formation type. Therefore, the average value of normal formation pressure
gradient may not be valid for all depths. For instance, it is possible that local normal
pressure gradients as high as 0.515 psi./ft. may exist in formations adjacent to salt
formations where the formation water is completely salt-saturated.
6.2.3. Abnormal pressure
A pressure which is higher than the definition given for normal pressure is abnormal. The
principal causes of abnormal pressures are:
Under-compaction in shales
When first deposited, shale has a high porosity. More than 50% of the total volume of un-
compacted clay-mud may consist of water in which it is laid. During normal compaction,
a gradual reduction in porosity accompanied by a loss of formation water occur as the
thickness and weight of the overlaying sediments increase. Compaction reduces the pore
space in shale, as compaction continues water is squeezed out. As a result, water must be
removed from the shale before further compaction can occur.
Not all of the expelled liquid is water, hydrocarbons may also be flushed from the shale.
If the balance between the rate of compaction and fluid expulsion is disrupted such that
fluid removal is impeded then fluid pressures within the shale will increase. The inability
of shale to expel water at a sufficient rate results in a much higher porosity than expected
for the depth of shale burial in that area.
Salt Beds
Continuous salt depositions over large areas can cause abnormal pressures. Salt is totally
impermeable to fluids and behave plastically. It deforms and flows by re-crystallization.
Its properties of pressure transmission are more like fluids than solids, thereby exerting
pressures equal to the overburden load in all directions. The fluids in the underlying
formations cannot escape as there is no communication to the surface and thus the
formations become over pressured.
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PRESSURE BASICS
Mineralization
The alteration of sediments and their constituent minerals can result in variations of the
total volume of the minerals present. An increase in the volume of these solids will result
in an increased fluid pressure. An example of this occurs when anhydrite is laid down. If
it later takes on water crystallization, its structure changes to become gypsum, with a
volume increase of around 35%.
Tectonic Causes
This is a compacting force that is applied horizontally in sub-surface formations. In
normal pressure environments water is expelled from clays as they are being compacted
with increasing overburden pressures. If however an additional horizontal compacting
force squeezes the clays laterally and if fluids are not able to escape at a rate equal to the
reduction in pore volume the result, will be an increase in pore pressure; See Figure 6.4.
Faulting
Faults may cause abnormally high pressures. Formation slippage may bring a permeable
formation laterally against an impermeable formation preventing the flow of fluids. Non-
sealing faults may allow fluids to move from a deeper permeable formation to a shallower
formation. If the shallower formation is sealed then it will be pressurized from the deeper
zone.
Diapirism
A salt diapirism is an upward intrusion of salt to form a salt dome. This upthrust disturbs
the normal layering of sediments and over pressures can occur due to the folding and
faulting of the intruded formations.
Extension Extension
Compression Compression
Compression
Compression
Amount of
Shortening
Possible Overpressured Zones
Figure 6.4 - Abnormal Formation Pressure Caused by Tectonic Compressional Folding
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PRESSURE BASICS
Reservoir Structure
Abnormally high pressures can develop in normally compacted rocks. In a reservoir in
which a high relief structure contains oil or gas, an abnormally high pressure gradient as
measured relative to surface will exist as shown in the following Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5 - Reservoir Structure
Figure 6.5a Shows how the anticline differs from a dome in that it’s shape is long and narrow.
Figure 6.5b Shows a simple structural trap.
Figure 6.5c Shows stratigraphic trap. The size of the strati graphical trap on the left is
limited only by it’s hydrocarbon content while the one on the right is self-limiting.
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PRESSURE BASICS
6.3 FORMATION FRACTURE PRESSURE
The amount of pressure a formation can withstand before it splits is termed the fracture
pressure. The pressure of fluid in a well must exceed formation pressure before the fluid
can enter a formation and cause a fracture. Fracture pressure is expressed in psi., as a
gradient in psi./ft., or as a fluid weight equivalent in ppg.
In order to plan a conventional rig well intervention, it is necessary to have some
knowledge of the fracture pressures of the formation to be encountered. If wellbore
pressures were to equal or exceed this fracture pressure, the formation would break down
as the fracture was initiated, followed by loss of workover fluid, loss of hydrostatic
pressure, loss of primary well control and irreparable damage to the formation. Most
operating companies have strict policies and procedures to ensure the fracture pressure is
never exceeded (unless the formation was to be deliberately fractured for reservoir
productivity improvement through sand fracing operations, etc.). Unless the service is to
conduct remedial operations on or in the casing across the formation, it is preferred to
isolate the formation from the kill fluid by installing a barrier or plug.
Fracture pressures are related to the weight of the formation matrix (rock) and the fluids
(water/oil) occupying the pore space within the matrix, above the zone of interest. These
two factors combine to produce what is known as the overburden pressure. Assuming the
average density of a thick sedimentary sequence to be the equivalent of 19.2 ppg then the
overburden gradient is given by:
0.052 x 19.2 = 1.0 psi./ft.
Since the degree of compaction of sediments is known to vary with depth, the gradient is
not constant.
Onshore, since the sediments tend to be more compacted, the overburden gradient can be
taken as being close to 1.0 psi./ft. Offshore, however the overburden gradients at shallow
depths will be much less than 1.0 psi./ft. due to the effect of the depth of seawater and
large thickness of unconsolidated sediment.
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PRESSURE BASICS
6.4 FORMATION INTEGRITY TESTS
To determine the fracture pressure of a formation, a leak-off test (LOT) or a formation
integrity test (FIT) may be performed with a solids carrying fluid or mud. Where solids
free work-over fluids are used, a formation integrity test cannot be conducted and in these
cases the formation is protected solely by a MAASP which is set at a safe percentage of
the original casing pressure rating; Refer to Section 6.5.
LOTs and FITs determine if the cement seal between the casing and the formation is
adequate and the maximum pressure or fluid weight that the formation(s) can withstand
without fracturing. As the leak-off test actually causes a fracture to determine the fracture
gradient, it is rarely used in well servicing operations and the FIT is adopted.
Whichever is to be performed, it must be ensured that the well is fully circulated to the
correct weight work-over fluid and the pump deliverability is sufficient.
Leak-Off Test
The test is performed by applying an incremental pressure from the surface to the closed
wellbore/casing system until it can be seen that fluid is being injected into the formation.
Leak-off tests should normally be taken to this leak-off pressure unless it exceeds the
pressure to which the casing was tested.
A typical procedure is as follows:
• Before starting, gauges should be checked for accuracy. The upper pressure limit
should be determined.
• The casing should be pressure tested before well operations commence.
• Circulate and condition the mud, check mud density in and out.
• Close BOPs.
• With the well closed in, the pump is used to pump a small volume at a time into the
well typically a 1/4 or 1/2 bbl per min. Monitor the pressure build up and accurately
record the volume of mud pumped. Plot pressure versus volume of mud pumped.
• Stop the pump when any deviation from linearity is noticed between pump
pressure and volume pumped.
• Bleed off the pressure and establish the amounts of mud, if any, lost to the formation.
Examples of leak-off test plot interpretation:
In non-consolidated or highly permeable formations fluid can be lost at very low pressures. In
this case the pressure will fall once the pump has been stopped and a plot such as that shown
in Figure 6.6a will be obtained. Figure 6.6b and Figure 6.6c show typical plots for
consolidated permeable and consolidated impermeable formations respectively.
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PRESSURE BASICS
a) Unconsolidated Formations b) Consolidated Permeable Formations
Pressure
Pressure
Cumulative Volume Cumulative Volume
c) Consolidated Impermeable Formations
Final Pumping Pressure
After Volume Increment
Final Static Pressure After
Each Volume Increment
Leak-Off Point
Pressure
Cumulative Volume
Figure 6.6 - Idealized Leak-Off Test Curves
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PRESSURE BASICS
Formation Integrity Test
An FIT can be performed when it is not acceptable to fracture a formation. In a FIT, fluid is
pumped into the shut in well until a predetermined pressure is reached that is determined to be
below the pressure to break down the formation. This value used is usually obtained by
assessing information from well’s completion report and nearby well data.
The procedure is:
1. Before starting, gauges should be checked for accuracy.
2. The casing should be pressure tested before well operations commence.
3. Circulate and condition the mud, check mud density in and out.
4. Close BOPs.
5. With the well closed in, the pump is used to incrementally raise the pressure in the
well to the test pressure and monitor the pressure to ensure that there is no leak off.
6.5 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULUS SURFACE PRESSURE - MAASP
With data from the formation integrity test, the maximum pressure which can be applied
without fracturing the formation and the maximum fluid weight can be determined.
The formation breakdown pressure
= Applied surface pressure + hydrostatic pressure of fluid in the casing
The applied surface pressure at which leak-off occurred or at FIT pressure, is the maximum
allowable annulus surface pressure with the fluid weight in use at that time. MAASP is the
maximum surface pressure that can be tolerated before reaching the formation fractures.
MAASP = Formation breakdown pressure - HP of fluid in use at the formation
or re-written as:
MAASP = (Fracture gradient - Fluid gradient) x TVD of formation
or as:
MAASP = (Max. equivalent fluid weight - Fluid weight in well) x
(0.052 x TVD of formation).
MAASP is only valid if the well is full of the original fluid during the LOT or FIT; if the
fluid weight in the well is changed, MAASP must be recalculated.
The calculated MAASP is no longer valid if influx fluids enter into the well.
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PRESSURE BASICS
However, in practice MAASP is calculated as a percentage of the original casing burst pressure
rating. This percentage is derived from experience and the age of the well casings, i.e. if the well
is old and it is suspected there is casing corrosion or wear, the percentage will be lower than that
of a more recently developed well. In general, the pressure rating is 80% of original burst. This
pressure is used in the equation in place of the formation breakdown pressure.
6.6 CIRCULATING PRESSURE LOSSES
Friction is resistance to movement. A force is required to overcome friction of a body or
substance from a position of rest to movement. The amount of friction to overcome this
resistance is dependent upon a number of factors:
• Density of the body or substance.
• Type of substance.
• Roughness of the surfaces making contact.
• Surface area in contact.
• Thermal and electrical properties.
• Direction of movement.
• Velocity.
• The force required to overcome friction is termed frictional loss.
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