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Overview of the Research Process

So how do our mental paradigms shape social science research? At its core, all scientific
research is an iterative process of observation, rationalization, and validation. In the
observation phase, we observe a natural or social phenomenon, event, or behavior that
interests us. In the rationalization phase, we try to make sense of or the observed
phenomenon, event, or behavior by logically connecting the different pieces of the puzzle that
we observe, which in some cases, may lead to the construction of a theory. Finally, in the
validation phase, we test our theories using a scientific method through a process of data
collection and analysis, and in doing so, possibly modify or extend our initial theory. However,
research designs vary based on whether the researcher starts at observation and attempts to
rationalize the observations (inductive research), or whether the researcher starts at an ex ante
rationalization or a theory and attempts to validate the theory (deductive research). Hence, the
observation-rationalization-validation cycle is very similar to the induction-deduction cycle of
research discussed in Chapter 1.

Most traditional research tends to be deductive and functionalistic in nature. Figure 3.2
provides a schematic view of such a research project. This figure depicts a series of activities to
be performed in functionalist research, categorized into three phases: exploration, research
design, and research execution. Note that this generalized design is not a roadmap or flowchart
for all research. It applies only to functionalistic research, and it can and should be modified to
fit the needs of a specific project.

Figure 3.2. Functionalistic research process

The first phase of research is exploration. This phase includes exploring and selecting
research questions for further investigation, examining the published literature in the area of
inquiry to understand the current state of knowledge in that area, and identifying theories that
may help answer the research questions of interest.
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The first step in the exploration phase is identifying one or more research questions
dealing with a specific behavior, event, or phenomena of interest. Research questions are
specific questions about a behavior, event, or phenomena of interest that you wish to seek
answers for in your research. Examples include what factors motivate consumers to purchase
goods and services online without knowing the vendors of these goods or services, how can we
make high school students more creative, and why do some people commit terrorist acts.
Research questions can delve into issues of what, why, how, when, and so forth. More
interesting research questions are those that appeal to a broader population (e.g., “how can
firms innovate” is a more interesting research question than “how can Chinese firms innovate in
the service-sector”), address real and complex problems (in contrast to hypothetical or “toy”
problems), and where the answers are not obvious. Narrowly focused research questions
(often with a binary yes/no answer) tend to be less useful and less interesting and less suited to
capturing the subtle nuances of social phenomena. Uninteresting research questions generally
lead to uninteresting and unpublishable research findings.

The next step is to conduct a literature review of the domain of interest. The purpose
of a literature review is three-fold: (1) to survey the current state of knowledge in the area of
inquiry, (2) to identify key authors, articles, theories, and findings in that area, and (3) to
identify gaps in knowledge in that research area. Literature review is commonly done today
using computerized keyword searches in online databases. Keywords can be combined using
“and” and “or” operations to narrow down or expand the search results. Once a shortlist of
relevant articles is generated from the keyword search, the researcher must then manually
browse through each article, or at least its abstract section, to determine the suitability of that
article for a detailed review. Literature reviews should be reasonably complete, and not
restricted to a few journals, a few years, or a specific methodology. Reviewed articles may be
summarized in the form of tables, and can be further structured using organizing frameworks
such as a concept matrix. A well-conducted literature review should indicate whether the initial
research questions have already been addressed in the literature (which would obviate the
need to study them again), whether there are newer or more interesting research questions
available, and whether the original research questions should be modified or changed in light of
findings of the literature review. The review can also provide some intuitions or potential
answers to the questions of interest and/or help identify theories that have previously been
used to address similar questions.

Since functionalist (deductive) research involves theory-testing, the third step is to

identify one or more theories can help address the desired research questions. While the
literature review may uncover a wide range of concepts or constructs potentially related to the
phenomenon of interest, a theory will help identify which of these constructs is logically
relevant to the target phenomenon and how. Forgoing theories may result in measuring a wide
range of less relevant, marginally relevant, or irrelevant constructs, while also minimizing the
chances of obtaining results that are meaningful and not by pure chance. In functionalist
research, theories can be used as the logical basis for postulating hypotheses for empirical
testing. Obviously, not all theories are well-suited for studying all social phenomena. Theories
must be carefully selected based on their fit with the target problem and the extent to which
their assumptions are consistent with that of the target problem. We will examine theories and
the process of theorizing in detail in the next chapter.

The next phase in the research process is research design. This process is concerned
with creating a blueprint of the activities to take in order to satisfactorily answer the research
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questions identified in the exploration phase. This includes selecting a research method,
operationalizing constructs of interest, and devising an appropriate sampling strategy.

Operationalization is the process of designing precise measures for abstract

theoretical constructs. This is a major problem in social science research, given that many of
the constructs, such as prejudice, alienation, and liberalism are hard to define, let alone
measure accurately. Operationalization starts with specifying an “operational definition” (or
“conceptualization”) of the constructs of interest. Next, the researcher can search the literature
to see if there are existing prevalidated measures matching their operational definition that can
be used directly or modified to measure their constructs of interest. If such measures are not
available or if existing measures are poor or reflect a different conceptualization than that
intended by the researcher, new instruments may have to be designed for measuring those
constructs. This means specifying exactly how exactly the desired construct will be measured
(e.g., how many items, what items, and so forth). This can easily be a long and laborious
process, with multiple rounds of pretests and modifications before the newly designed
instrument can be accepted as “scientifically valid.” We will discuss operationalization of
constructs in a future chapter on measurement.

Simultaneously with operationalization, the researcher must also decide what research
method they wish to employ for collecting data to address their research questions of interest.
Such methods may include quantitative methods such as experiments or survey research or
qualitative methods such as case research or action research, or possibly a combination of both.
If an experiment is desired, then what is the experimental design? If survey, do you plan a mail
survey, telephone survey, web survey, or a combination? For complex, uncertain, and multi-
faceted social phenomena, multi-method approaches may be more suitable, which may help
leverage the unique strengths of each research method and generate insights that may not be
obtained using a single method.

Researchers must also carefully choose the target population from which they wish to
collect data, and a sampling strategy to select a sample from that population. For instance,
should they survey individuals or firms or workgroups within firms? What types of individuals
or firms they wish to target? Sampling strategy is closely related to the unit of analysis in a
research problem. While selecting a sample, reasonable care should be taken to avoid a biased
sample (e.g., sample based on convenience) that may generate biased observations. Sampling is
covered in depth in a later chapter.

At this stage, it is often a good idea to write a research proposal detailing all of the
decisions made in the preceding stages of the research process and the rationale behind each
decision. This multi-part proposal should address what research questions you wish to study
and why, the prior state of knowledge in this area, theories you wish to employ along with
hypotheses to be tested, how to measure constructs, what research method to be employed and
why, and desired sampling strategy. Funding agencies typically require such a proposal in
order to select the best proposals for funding. Even if funding is not sought for a research
project, a proposal may serve as a useful vehicle for seeking feedback from other researchers
and identifying potential problems with the research project (e.g., whether some important
constructs were missing from the study) before starting data collection. This initial feedback is
invaluable because it is often too late to correct critical problems after data is collected in a
research study.
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Having decided who to study (subjects), what to measure (concepts), and how to collect
data (research method), the researcher is now ready to proceed to the research execution
phase. This includes pilot testing the measurement instruments, data collection, and data
analysis.

Pilot testing is an often overlooked but extremely important part of the research
process. It helps detect potential problems in your research design and/or instrumentation
(e.g., whether the questions asked is intelligible to the targeted sample), and to ensure that the
measurement instruments used in the study are reliable and valid measures of the constructs of
interest. The pilot sample is usually a small subset of the target population. After a successful
pilot testing, the researcher may then proceed with data collection using the sampled
population. The data collected may be quantitative or qualitative, depending on the research
method employed.

Following data collection, the data is analyzed and interpreted for the purpose of
drawing conclusions regarding the research questions of interest. Depending on the type of
data collected (quantitative or qualitative), data analysis may be quantitative (e.g., employ
statistical techniques such as regression or structural equation modeling) or qualitative (e.g.,
coding or content analysis).

The final phase of research involves preparing the final research report documenting
the entire research process and its findings in the form of a research paper, dissertation, or
monograph. This report should outline in detail all the choices made during the research
process (e.g., theory used, constructs selected, measures used, research methods, sampling, etc.)
and why, as well as the outcomes of each phase of the research process. The research process
must be described in sufficient detail so as to allow other researchers to replicate your study,
test the findings, or assess whether the inferences derived are scientifically acceptable. Of
course, having a ready research proposal will greatly simplify and quicken the process of
writing the finished report. Note that research is of no value unless the research process and
outcomes are documented for future generations; such documentation is essential for the
incremental progress of science.

Common Mistakes in Research

The research process is fraught with problems and pitfalls, and novice researchers often
find, after investing substantial amounts of time and effort into a research project, that their
research questions were not sufficiently answered, or that the findings were not interesting
enough, or that the research was not of “acceptable” scientific quality. Such problems typically
result in research papers being rejected by journals. Some of the more frequent mistakes are
described below.

Insufficiently motivated research questions. Often times, we choose our “pet”

problems that are interesting to us but not to the scientific community at large, i.e., it does not
generate new knowledge or insight about the phenomenon being investigated. Because the
research process involves a significant investment of time and effort on the researcher’s part,
the researcher must be certain (and be able to convince others) that the research questions
they seek to answer in fact deal with real problems (and not hypothetical problems) that affect
a substantial portion of a population and has not been adequately addressed in prior research.
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Pursuing research fads. Another common mistake is pursuing “popular” topics with
limited shelf life. A typical example is studying technologies or practices that are popular today.
Because research takes several years to complete and publish, it is possible that popular
interest in these fads may die down by the time the research is completed and submitted for
publication. A better strategy may be to study “timeless” topics that have always persisted
through the years.

Unresearchable problems. Some research problems may not be answered adequately

based on observed evidence alone, or using currently accepted methods and procedures. Such
problems are best avoided. However, some unresearchable, ambiguously defined problems
may be modified or fine tuned into well-defined and useful researchable problems.

Favored research methods. Many researchers have a tendency to recast a research

problem so that it is amenable to their favorite research method (e.g., survey research). This is
an unfortunate trend. Research methods should be chosen to best fit a research problem, and
not the other way around.

Blind data mining. Some researchers have the tendency to collect data first (using
instruments that are already available), and then figure out what to do with it. Note that data
collection is only one step in a long and elaborate process of planning, designing, and executing
research. In fact, a series of other activities are needed in a research process prior to data
collection. If researchers jump into data collection without such elaborate planning, the data
collected will likely be irrelevant, imperfect, or useless, and their data collection efforts may be
entirely wasted. An abundance of data cannot make up for deficits in research planning and
design, and particularly, for the lack of interesting research questions.