1.

Tree sap has been used as a natural adhesive and wood sealer for centuries. Its bonding capabilities
position tree sap as an efficient and eco-friendly adhesive for multiple woodworking tasks. The sap's
knack for adhering different materials like wood, bone, or stone has turned it into a crucial instrument
for artisans and crafters.

In addition to its adhesive qualities, tree sap also acts as a wood sealer. When smeared onto wooden
surfaces, tree sap establishes a protective barrier that obstructs moisture penetration, thereby aiding in
the maintenance of the wood's structural integrity. This natural wood sealer has been used in boat
building, furniture making, and other woodworking applications.

[Link]

2.

David E, Niculescu VC. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) as Environmental Pollutants: Occurrence and
Mitigation Using Nanomaterials. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Dec 13;18(24):13147. doi:
10.3390/ijerph182413147. PMID: 34948756; PMCID: PMC8700805.

3.

The sources of VOCs are both natural and anthropogenic. Natural sources comprise emissions from
plants, forest fires occurring from natural causes and anaerobic moors processes. VOCs generated by
anthropogenic processes are both domestic and industrial processes: food extraction, fertilizers and
pesticides use, septic system, chlorination, traffic, hydrocarbon fuels burning, petroleum storage and
distribution, textile cleaning, printing, pharmaceutical industries, etc

Pandey P., Yadav R. A Review on Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) as Environmental Pollutants: Fate
and Distribution. Int. J. Plant Environ. 2018;4:14–26. doi: 10.18811/ijpen.v4i02.2. [DOI] [Google Scholar]

4.

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5.

The earliest evidence of the use of glue can still be observed in cave paintings made by our Neanderthal
ancestors in Lascaux, France. These early artists wanted their work to last and mixed glue with the paint
they used to help the colors resist the moisture of the cave walls. The oldest known glue used to hold
things together dates back to approximately 200,000 BC, made from birch bark tar to adhere spear stone
flakes to wood.

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6.

There is evidence of an adhesive being used dating as far back as 4,000 B.C. In studies of prehistoric tribe
burial sites sticky resins from tree sap were found to have been used to repair pottery vessels. Statues
from Babylonian temples have also revealed the use of a tar-like glue to stick ivory eyeballs into eye
sockets. Whilst this was a primitive form of glue, it stuck for the best part of 6,000 years!

There is further evidence of the historical use of glue dating back to 1,500 to 1,000 B.C., where paintings
and murals have shown it being used for wood gluing operations. Indeed, glue was used in the
construction of a casket removed from the tomb of King Tut! Given this evidence, it will come as no
surprise that the museums across the world house many artefacts with evidence of the early use of
bonding or laminating with animal glue, in particular those artefacts from the tombs of Egyptian
pharaohs. Around 200 B.C. simple procedures for both the production and use of animal glue were
referenced in literature.

The history of adhesives continues between 1 – 500 A.D. when the Romans and Greeks used glue to
bond thin layers of wood, and refined the production of animal and fish glues, as well as developing
other types of adhesives using natural ingredients such as egg whites, blood, bones, hide, milk, cheese,
vegetables, grains, etc.. The Romans also continued the use of tar, as found in the Babylonian temples, in
addition to beeswax, to bond the planks of wood in boats and ships to make them watertight.

The use of adhesives came to the fore again in around 1,500 – 1,700 A.D. when they were used in the
production of furniture, most notably Chippendale.

Whilst many historical uses of adhesives have been lost in history, in around 1,700 A.D. the use of glues
was that prevalent those changes were required and were fast in coming. In Holland the first commercial
glue factory making animal glue from hides was established, leading in 1750 to the first glue patent for
fish glue issued in Britain. This led to many patents in quick succession for adhesives using natural
rubber, animal bones, fish, starch and milk protein, and by 1900 there were quite a few factories in the
US producing glue from these raw ingredients.

The Industrial Revolution brought about a rapid increase in technical advancements resulting in the use
of new materials in the production of glue, and a natural progression from there led to the creation of
the first plastic polymer from cellulose nitrate. This was initially used in the production of billiard balls,
which prior to this had been made from ivory. In 1910 the period of plastics began with the production
of Bakelite phenolic, which is a thermoset plastic. From this point onwards the use of phenolic resins in
the production of adhesives rapidly spread, with many new plastics and rubbers synthetically made in
the years between 1920 to 1940, many of which were developed during World War II.

Whilst the history of adhesives has been tracked right back to 4,000 B.C., it is in the last 100 years that
the technological advancements in the production of adhesives have taken place. With the development
of plastics and elastomers the innovations and progressions in adhesives really flourished, with qualities
such as flexibility, toughness, curing or setting time, temperature and chemical resistance all being made
available.

Most people are unaware of the extent to which adhesives play a vital role in our everyday lives. Whilst
we may not realise it, adhesives are never far away from us, and many items we take for granted actually
owe their existence to adhesives!

Thermoplastic glue (Hot Melt Adhesives / glue sticks) may have been invented around 1940 by Procter &
Gamble as a solution to water-based adhesives commonly used in packaging at that time failing in high
humid climates, causing packages to fail and pop open. The arrival of instant-bonding hot melt adhesives
/ glue sticks was to change industry forever, hot melt adhesives / glue sticks are 100% solid, non-
toxic adhesives containing no solvents or water, and provide instant, permanent bonding on a vast range
of materials without the use of harmful solvents.

Rapid development in glue gun and glue stick technology driven by market demands as lead to today’s
range of glue guns and glue sticks. With over 40 variants of glue guns and more than 50 different
formulations of glue sticks, we are proud to say “Challenge us, we can bond anything”.

[Link]
srsltid=AfmBOopVJhB68TzVUAF1FKtWCO6Zn_eLi1TERUEfGp0F8CIq-gd3_36O

7.

Ancient civilizations developed ingenious methods for extracting resin and preparing tree glue, showing
that they had a deep understanding of the natural environment around them. The process typically
began with carefully cutting into the bark of resin-producing trees, like pines or spruces, to allow the sap
to seep out. This sap was collected in containers made from natural materials like clay or wood. Once
gathered, the resin was subjected to a careful heating process, often over open fires or in
rudimentary stone furnaces, which served to both thicken the resin and purify it by removing water and
other impurities. Through straining, often using cloths or sieves made from natural animal or plant
fibers, the resin was further refined to ensure a smooth, consistent texture. This resulted in a highly
effective adhesive, known for its strength and durability.

These ancient techniques, passed down through generations, exemplify early human innovation and
resourcefulness in utilizing the materials provided by nature to meet their needs, laying the groundwork
for the sophisticated adhesive technologies we have today.

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8.

Around 1750, the first glue or adhesive patent was issued in Britain. The glue was made from fish.
Patents were then rapidly issued for adhesives using natural rubber, animal bones, fish, starch, milk
protein or casein.

[Link]

9.

Both Neanderthals and Middle Stone Age humans created and used new materials by
precisely blending disparate ingredients for a wide range of tasks. Adhesives made of materials such
as birch bark and pine tar, bitumen, resin, gum, lime mortar, soybeans, rice, animal hides, and blood
can be found in the archaeological record around the world. Artifacts from the Great Basin of the
American Southwest clearly illustrate the diversity of ancient adhesive uses. Here, insect lac and tree
resins were used to haft arrows, repair pottery, glue inlays, waterproof basketry, serve as a decorative
paint, and create entire objects like game pieces and handles (Bisulca, Pool, and Odegaard 2017;
Odegaard et al. 2014; Stacey, Heron, and Sutton 1998).

Throughout (pre)history and around the world, people used materials, including bitumen/ asphalt,
carbohydrate polymers such as starches and gums, natural rubbers, mortars, proteins (from casein, soy,
blood, and animal connective tissue), insect and plant resins, and tars made from various barks and
woods.

Langejans, G., Aleo, A., Fajardo, S., & Kozowyk, P. (2022). Archaeological Adhesives. In Oxford Research
Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Retrieved 23 March 2022.
DOI: [Link]

[Link]

10.

the studies of Wadley et al. (2015), Sahle (2019), Fajardo et al. (2022) and Schmidt et al. (2022, on
possible prehistoric adhesive), who write in detail about every step in the adhesive making process.

A Glue Story: traditional plant use for adhesives in Zambia

January 2023

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.24049.25442

[Link]
378303774_A_Glue_Story_traditional_plant_use_for_adhesives_in_Zambia

11.

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12.

Breadfruit stems and leaves have chemical substance including saponins, polyphenols, tannins, hydroxyic
acid,
acetylcholine, riboflavin, while the bark contains flavonoids. From them, tannins and flavonoids can be
used as wood
adhesives

Effect of Bio-based Adhesive on Tensile Strength and Bending of Balsa Wood Adhesive Joint

August 2019

International Journal of Integrated Engineering11(5)

DOI: 10.30880/ijie.2019.11.05.010

[Link]
based_Adhesive_on_Tensile_Strength_and_Bending_of_Balsa_Wood_Adhesive_Joint
RRL

1. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2015, March 20). sap. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2

2. Doan, H. V., & Le, T. P. (2020). Chrysophyllum cainito: A Tropical Fruit with Multiple Health
Benefits. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine: eCAM, 2020, 7259267.
[Link]

Doan, H. V., Riyajan, S., Iyara, R., & Chudapongse, N. (2018). Antidiabetic activity, glucose uptake
stimulation and α-glucosidase inhibitory effect of Chrysophyllum cainito L. stem bark extract. BMC
complementary and alternative medicine, 18(1), 267. [Link]

Kubola, J., Nitthaisong, P. ., Jitthaisong, A. ., & Ratananikom, K. (2023). Extraction and characterization of
pectin from selected indigenous fruits for further commercial application in food industries. Food
Agricultural Sciences and Technology, 9(1), 76–89. retrieved from
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