AGSSL 3: EXPLORE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

3.1 DEMONSTRATE UNDERSTANDING OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANT CELL

STRUCTURE OF PLANT CELL

The parts of a plant cell have many functions, including:
 Cell wall: A rigid barrier made of cellulose that protects and supports the plant
 Cell membrane: A thin, flexible barrier that controls what enters and leaves the cell
 Nucleus: Contains DNA, which controls the cell's reactions and the production of proteins and enzymes
 Cytoplasm: A thick substance where chemical reactions occur, including anaerobic respiration
 Mitochondria: Contains enzymes that perform aerobic respiration, which produces energy
 Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll, the green pigment that performs photosynthesis
 Vacuoles: Store water and salts, and provide structural support
 Ribosomes: Assemble amino acids into proteins
 Endoplasmic reticulum: Packages and moves proteins
 Golgi apparatus: Modifies and sends proteins to different parts of the cell
 Lysosomes: Digest worn-out organelles, food particles, and foreign bodies
 Middle lamella: A cementing layer between the primary walls of adjacent cells
 Primary cell wall: A cellulose-containing layer that supports the cell when the vacuoles are filled with water
 Secondary cell wall: A rigidifying layer that provides mechanical support to the plant

CELL DIVISION
Plant cell division is the process by which a plant cell splits into two new daughter cells. This process is called cytokinesis.
TWO TYPES OF PLANT CELL DIVISION: mitosis and meiosis.

Gene – a unit of inheritance which determines inheritance of particular trait/traits

Alleles – alternative forms of genes occupying same locus of a point on homologous chromosomes
Chromosomes – a tiny threadlike nucleoprotein structures consisting of genes

MITOSIS

- Division of somatic (body) cell to produce two identical daughter cells to the parent cell.
- It is a multiplication division of somatic cells to produce two diploid daughter cells
- Cells with diploid number of chromosomes are produced

MITOTIC PROSESS

- chromosomes appear in the cell nucleus

- chromosomes replicate themselves (make identical copies of themselves) forming chromatids
o chromatids remain attached to each other by centromeres
- the nucleus membrane dissolves away/disintegrates
 - chromatids lie along the cell equator/centre
- each pair of chromatids separate and move to opposite cell poles
o the movement is by means of spindles
- the pair curl up again (with the other divided chromosomes) to form two nucleus
- the cell membrane and cytoplasm invaginates into two equal parts
- nucleus membrane is formed around each group of chromatids to form new cell chromosomes
- two identical cells to parent and each other are produced

MEIOSIS

- the reduction division of cells to form haploid daughter cells

- cells produced are different to parent cells

MEIOTIC PROSESS

It has two stages 1st and 2nd meiotic process

1st meiotic stage

- homologous chromosomes appear in the nucleus
- homologous chromosomes pair up and split into chromatids
- homologous chromatids cross-over each other
- homologous chromatids pair up and arrange themselves along the equator
- homologous chromatids separate and move to opposite poles
- the cell membrane and cytoplasm invaginates and two new haploid cells
o NB the chromatids are still attached at the centromeres.
nd
2 meiotic stage

- Chromatids pairs in each cell align themselves in the middle of the cell along the poles.
- Chromatids of each pair in each cell separate and move to opposite sides of the cell.
- A nucleus membrane forms around each group of chromatids.
- The cell membrane invaginates each daughter cell
- Four daughter cells are produced each having a different gene combination.
Comparison between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
- Occurs in production of somatic/body - Occurs in production of sex/gametic
cells. cells.
- Produces two diploid (2n) daughter - Produces four haploid (n) daughter cells.
cells. - Daughter cells are genetically different
- Daughter cells are genetically identical from parent cell.
to parent cell. - Daughter cells are genetically different
- Daughter cells are genetically similar to from each other (have variation)
each other (no variation) - Undergoes two stages of cell division
- Undergoes one stage of cell division
Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis

Interphase
Each chromosome replicates during the S phase of the Chromosomes not yet visible but DNA has been
interphase. The result is two genetically identical sister duplicated or replicated.
chromatids (However, do note that interphase is
technically not a part of mitosis because it takes place
between one mitotic phase and the next).

Prophase

Prophase –Each of the duplicated chromosomes appears Prophase I – crossing-over and recombination –
as two identical or equal sister chromatids. The mitotic Homologous chromosomes (each consists of two sister
spindle begins to form. Chromosomes condense and chromatids) appear together as pairs. Tetrad or bivalent
thicken. is the structure that is formed. Segments of
chromosomes are exchanged between non-sister
chromatids at crossover points known as chiasmata
(crossing-over).

Metaphase

Metaphase -The chromosomes assemble at the equator Metaphase I – Chromosomes adjust on the metaphase
at the metaphase plate. plate. Chromosomes are still intact and arranged as pairs
of homologues (bivalent).

Anaphase

Anaphase – The spindle fibers begin to contract. This Anaphase I – Sister chromatids stay intact. However,
starts to pull the sister chromatids apart. At the end of homologous chromosomes drift to the opposite or
anaphase, a complete set of daughter chromosomes is reverse poles.
found on each pole.

Mode of Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Occurrence

All the cells Reproductive cells

Function

General growth and repair, Cell reproduction Genetic diversity through sexual reproduction

Cytokinesis

Occurs in Telophase Occurs in Telophase I and in Telophase II

Discovered by
Walther Flemming Oscar Hertwig

3.2 DEMONSTRATE UNDERSTANDING OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

PLANTS
STRUCTURE OF A MONOCOTYLEDON AND DICOTYLEDON OF PLANT SEED

Monocotyledonous seeds
Seed coat
 The hard outer covering of the seed
 Protects the seed
 The seed coat of a monocotyledonous seed has an outer testa and an inner tegmen
Food storage(Endosperm)
 The part of the seed that contains nutrients and energy for the embryo
 In monocotyledonous seeds, the scutellum absorbs nutrients from the endosperm and transfers them to the developing plant
Embryo
 The part of the seed that develops into the seedling's leaves and roots
 The embryo root is called the radicle, and the embryo shoot is called the plumule
Micropyle
 A small pore in the seed coat that allows water to enter and respiratory gases to be exchanged
 The micropyle is the first point of entry for water when the seed begins to germinate
Hilum
 A scar on the seed coat that marks the point of attachment of the seed to the ovary wall
Scutellum
 The first non-foliar leaf or cotyledon in monocotyledonous plants
 The scutellum provides oil reserves and transfers sugars and amino acids to the developing plant

 Examples: Ginger, banana, sorghum, onion, coconut, and garlic are monocot seeds

Dicotyledonous seeds
 Cotyledons: Dicot seeds have two cotyledons that are fleshy and store food for the embryo
 Endosperm: Dicot seeds may have a reduced or absent endosperm
 Shape and size: Dicot seeds are usually larger and more symmetrical
 Seed coat: Dicot seeds have a seed coat made of two layers, the testa and the tegmen
  Hilum: Dicot seeds have a scar on the seed coat called the hilum, which is where the develo

 Tesla: It is the outer coat of the seed that protects the embryonic plant.
 Micropyle: It is a tiny pore in the testa that lies on the opposite of the tip of the radicle. It
permits water to enter the embryo before active germination.
 Radicle: This is the embryonic root which will develop into the primary root of the plant. It is
usually the first part of the embryo to push its way out of the seed during germination.
 Plumule: This is the embryonic shoot. It appears as a bud which will give rise to the shoot and the
remaining structures in the plant.
THE ROOT
Types of roots

 tap root – has primary root growing vertically downwards and secondary roots branching laterally from it e.g. carrot
 fibrous roots – has a mass of roots from the same point and may have lateral roots growing from them
 adventitious roots – mass of roots growing directly from the stem

Functions of the root

- hold/ support/ anchor the plant firmly in the soil
- absorb water and mineral salt from the soil
- store food in some crops e.g. sweet potatoes
- helps retain moisture in the soil
-
 Part Description Functions
Root hairs - microscopic epidermal cell projections - increases surface area for water and nutrients
absorption
Epidermis - single cell thick outermost layer made of thin- - protects inner parts of a root
walled cells - produces root hairs
- absorption of water and nutrients
Cortex - made of loosely packed thin-walled parenchyma - storage of food and water
cells
Endodermis - inner most part of the cortex - controls amount of water entering the vascular
- has casparian strip on radial and cross walls bundles
- stores food
Pericycle - a row of cells around the vascular bundles - gives rise to lateral roots

Cambium - meristematic tissue found between phloem and the - gives rise to secondary phloem and xylem
xylem - results in increased root thickness
Phloem - consist of sieve tubes, companion cells and packing - translocate food substances from the leaves to other
tissue of parenchyma cells parts of the plant
Xylem - consist of xylem vessels, trachids (pits), xylem fibers - transports water and mineral salts
and parenchyma cells between vessels - supports and strengthen stem tissue
Pith - in some stems pith is hollow - storage of food and water
- made of parenchyma cells and found central most
part of the root
- in older plants it is lignified
Part Description
Epidermis - single cell thick outermost layer made of thin-walled cells with - protects inner tissues from
wax (cuticle) covering the outer walls of those cells. drying, infections and
- has guard cells and stomata in young stem mechanical damage
- gaseous exchange in young
stems
Cortex - made of loosely packed thin-walled parenchyma cells - storage of food and water
- strengthen stem tissues of young cells
- chlorenchyma cells photosynthesis
Endodermis - inner most part of the cortex made of packed parenchyma - stores food (starch)
cells
Pericycle - a row of cells around the vascular bundles - gives rise to branches
Cambium - meristematic tissue found between phloem and the xylem - gives rise to secondary phloem and
xylem
- results in increased stem thickness
Phloem - consist of sieve tubes, companion cells and packing tissue of - trans locates food substances from the
parenchyma cells leaves to other parts of the plant
Xylem - consist of xylem vessels, tracheid (pits), xylem fibers and - transports water and mineral salts
parenchyma cells between vessels - supports and strengthen stem tissue
Pith - in some stems pith is hollow - storage of food and water
- made of parenchyma cells and found central most part of the
root
Part Structure description Function
Root cap located at the terminal point of the root - protects apical meristem
tip made of simple parenchyma cells - lubricates meristem passage through the soil
- controls root growth direction as it perceives gravity
Region of cell Composed of young cells that are - gives rise to many new cells
division capable of dividing - adds cells to replenish the root cap
(apical meristem) - add cells to the region of cell elongation
Region of cell Found 3mm from the root cap Cells lengthen and increase in size this pushes the root
elongation through the soil
Region of cell - located 1 cm from the root tip forms different internal root tissues e.g. phloem,
differentiation - has dense growth of root hairs xylem, cortex etc.
 Comparison between xylem and phloem

Xylem Phloem
Transports water and mineral salts Translocate food from leaves to other plant parts
Made of non-living cells Made of living cells
Contents (water & mineral salts) move up the plant Food moves up and down the plant
No cross walls present in the xylem vessels Perforated cross walls present
Have tracheid, vessel elements and xylem parenchyma Has companion cells, sieve tubes and phloem parenchyma
cells cells
Forms a star shape in a di-cot root Does not form a star shape
Lignified Has no lignin

Comparison between monocot and dicot stem

Monocotyledon dicotyledonous
A large number of vascular bundles A limited number of vascular bundles
Scattered vascular bundles on the ground tissue Concentrically arranged vascular bundles
No cambium between the xylem and phloem Cambium exists between phloem and xylem
No secondary stem thickening Secondary thickening can occur
No formation of annual rings Annual rings are formed due to secondary thickening
No distinction between phloem and xylem Cortex and pith can be clearly distinguished
Part Description Function
Cuticle - thin waxy transparent water-proof non-cellular layer - prevents excessive water loss
on the upper and lower leave surface - prevents entry of pathogens
- protects inner leave tissues from mechanical
damage
Epidermis - one cell thick tissue on the upper and lower leaf - helps maintain leaf shape
(upper and lower surface with cells arranged end to end - protects inner tissues
epidermis) - contains no chloroplasts - secretes the cuticle
- lower epidermis has stomata
Palisade mesophyll - made of closely packed cylindrically shaped cells - serves as a site for photosynthesis
or palisade layer containing many chloroplasts - chloroplasts absorb light energy
Spongy mesophyll or - made of loosely packed irregularly shaped cells with - gaseous exchange between leave tissue and
spongy layer air spaces between them the atmosphere
- contain fewer chloroplasts than the palisade layer - site for photosynthesis
Chloroplasts - disc shaped organelles found in the palisade, spongy - absorbs sunlight energy
and guard cell cytoplasm - serves as an exact site for photosynthesis
 Air space - inter cellular spaces found in the spongy mesophyll -
Stomata - perforations found mostly in the lower epidermis - allows gaseous exchange between the leave
and the atmosphere
Guard cell - bean shaped epidermal cells containing chloroplasts - regulate opening and closing of stomata
- inner walls are thicker than the outer walls - aids in gaseous exchange
- controls water loss from the leave
Xylem - transports water and mineral salts to the leave
Phloem - translocates food from the leave to other part of the plant

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MAIZE AND BEAN FLOWER

The maize flower

a) Maize Female Flower

o It is the cob
o Has central stalk with a large number of ovaries attached to it
o Has a group of long sticky style hanging outside the cob?
o Each strand of silk is connected to the ovule/ ovary
o The stick silk traps pollen grains from the wind
o Fertilized ovules develop into seeds of the cob also called the fruit

Maize male flower

 o It is the tassel
o Has no petals/sepals but has bracts
o Has long flexible filament and anthers hang outside the flower
o Produce a large number of light pollen grains

Bean Flower

Part Function (s) of the part

Petals - Brightly and sweet scented hence attracts insects which come to collect nectar at the
flower base
Stigma - receives pollen grains during pollination
Style - connects the stigma to the ovary
Anther - produces pollen grains which carry male sex cells
Filament - supports the anthers
Ovary - produces the ovules which carry female sex cells
Ovule - site for fertilization
- produces female sex cells
Receptacle - supports other flower parts
- attaches the flower to the flower stalk
Pedicel( flower stalk) - attaches the flower to the plant stem
NB – male parts of a flower are called androecium (filament, anthers, and pollen grains) and consist of ten stamens
- the female parts of the flower are called the gynoecium (stigma, style, ovary, ovules) consist of only one Carpel
- after fertilization the fertilized ovules develop into seeds and the ovary develops into fruit
- Self-pollination is avoided by the fact that the stamens mature before the silk is receptive

AGSSL 4: EXPLORE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT PRODUUCTION

POLLINATION IN PLANTS
Mechanism of pollination in bean flower

- it is insect pollinated
- insects visit the flower attracted by bright colored petal and sweet scent
- the mature sticky pollen grains stick to the body of the visiting insect
- as the insect visits the next flower the pollen grains from the insect’s body to a mature stigma
- hence pollination has occurred

Mechanism of pollination in maize

- Maize is wind pollinated

- Ripe and loose pollen grains are blown from anthers hanging outside the flower
- Pollen grains are carried by air currents
- The sticky silk (style and stigma) traps pollens from the air
- Hence pollination has occurred

Difference between an insect pollinated flower and a wind pollinated flower

Part Insect pollinated flower Wind pollinated flower

Petals Brightly coloured petals Dull coloured petals
 Anthers Enclosed inside the flower Anthers hang outside the flower
Pollen grains Heavy and sticky Smooth and light
Nectar Present Has no nectar
Scent Have a sweet smell/scent Has no sweet scent
Stigma/styles Stiff and enclosed inside the flower Stigma feathery and hangs outside the flower

Fertilisation in a bean flower

o successful pollination occurs

o pollen nucleus divides into two nuclei
o forming a pollen tube nucleus and reproductive nucleus
o reproductive nucleus further divides into two male nuclei/gametes
o pollen tube nucleus develops absorbs nutrients from the stigma and swells
o the pollen tube nucleus germinates and develops a pollen tube
o the pollen tube passes through the style to the ovary
o pollen tube enters the ovule through an opening called the micropyle
o the pollen tube breaks/burst open to release male gametes
o one male nucleus (primary nucleus) fuses with female nucleus to form a zygote
o the other male nucleus (secondary nucleus) fuses with the secondary female nucleus to form an endosperm

NB – the fertilised ovule will develop into a seed

- the seed will grow in size as seed filling occurs in the endosperm form storage
- the ovary will enlarge in size to become a fruit (pods, hard pericarp, fleshy fruits)
- after fertilisation the stigma, style, petals, stamens shrivel and fall off
- dehiscent fruit (ones that breaks open at maturity) and indehiscent (one that do not break open at maturity) are formed