Rubber is a natural or synthetic vulcanizable high polymer having high elastic properties.

Electrical properties of rubber depend on the degree of compounding and vulcanizing.

General impurities, chemical changes due to ageing, moisture content and variations in
temperature and frequency have substantial effects on the electrical properties of
rubber. They have got dielectric strengths varying from 80 to 390 kV/cm and
temperature from 60˚C to 150˚C.

3.7.8 Epoxy Resins

They are thermo settings types of insulating materials. They possess excellent dielectric
and mechanical properties. The dielectric strength is75 kV/mm and volume resistivity is
about1013 ohm-cm. It can be formed into an insulator of any desired shape for almost
any type of high voltage application. It is used for encapsulation of electronic
components, generator windings and transformers, for bonding of very divers materials
such as porcelain, wood, metals, plastics, etc. It is very important adhesive used for
sealing of high vacuum joints.

Module-III
Generation of High Voltages and Currents
İn the fields of electrical engineering and applied physics, high voltages (d.c., a.c., and
impulse) are required for several applications. For example, electron microscopes and x-
ray units require high d.c. voltages of the order of 100 kV or more. Electrostatic
precipitators, particle accelerators in nuclear physics, etc. require high voltage (d.c) of
several kilovolts and even megavolts. High a.c. voltages of one million volts or even
more are required for testing power apparatus rated for extra high transmission voltages
(400 kV system and above). High impulse voltages are required for testing purposes to
simulate overvoltages that occur in power systems due to lightning or switching surges.
For electrical engineers, the main concern of high voltages is for the insulation testing of
various components in power systems for different types of voltages, namely, power
frequency a.c., high frequency, switching or lightning impulse. Hence, generation of
high voltages in laboratories for testing purposes is essential and is discussed in this
chapter.

Different forms of high voltages mentioned above are classified as

(i) high d.c. voltages,
(ii) high a.c. voltages of power frequency,
(iii) high a.c. voltages of high frequency,
(iv) high transient or impulse voltages of very short duration such as lightning
overvoltages, and
(v) transient voltages of longer duration such as switching surges.

Normally, in high voltage testing, the current under conditions of failure is limited to a
small value (less than an ampere in the case of d.c. or a.c. voltages and few amperes in
the case of impulse or transient voltages). But in certain cases, like the testing of surge
diverters or the short circuit testing of switchgear, high current testing with several
hundreds of ampere is of importance. Tests on surge diverters require high surge currents
of the order of several kiloamperes. Therefore, test facilities require high voltage and
high current generators. High impulse current generation is also required along with
voltage generation for testing purposes.

4.1GENERATION OF HIGH DC VOLTAGE

Generation of high d.c. voltages is mainly required in research work in the areas of pure
and applied physics. Sometimes, high direct voltages are needed in insulation tests on
cables and capacitors. Impulse generator charging units also require high d.c. voltages of
about 100 to 200 kV. Normally, for the generation of d.c. voltages of up to 100 kV,
electronic valve rectifiers are used and the output currents are about 100 mA. The
rectifier valves require special construction for cathode and filaments since a high
electrostatic field of several kV/cm exist between the anode and the cathode in the non-
conduction period. The a.c. supply to the rectifier tubes may be of power frequency or
may be of audio frequency from an oscillator. The latter is used when a ripple of very
small magnitude is required without the use of costly filters to smoothen the ripple.

4.2Half and Full Wave Rectifier Circuits

Rectifier circuits for producing high d.c. voltages from a.c. sources may be
(a) halfwave,
(b) full wave, or
(c) voltage doubler type rectifiers.
The rectifier may be an electron tube or a solid state device. Nowadays single electron
tubes are available for peak inverse voltages up to 250 kV, and semiconductor or solid
state diodes up to 20 kV. For higher voltages, several units are to be used in series.
When a number of units are used in series, transient voltage distribution along each unit
becomes non-uniform and special care should be taken to make the distribution uniform.
Commonly used half wave and full wave rectifiers are shown in Fig. 4.1.
rectifier rectifier
+ +
A

C C
Input Input
RL RL
a.c. a.c.

B _
_
h.v. h.v.
transformer. transformer.

(a) Half wave rectifier (b) Full wave rectifier

Fig.4.1 Full and Half wave rectifiers

In the half wave rectifier (Fig. 4.1a) the capacitor is charged to Vmax, the maximum a.c.
voltage of the secondary of the high voltage transformer in the conducting half cycle. In
the other half cycle, the capacitor is discharged into the load. The value of the capacitor
C is chosen such that the time constant CRL is at least 10 times that of the period of the
a.c. supply. The rectifier valve must have a peak inverse rating of at least 2Vmax. To
limit the charging current, an additional resistance R is provided in series with the
secondary of the transformer (not shown in the figure).

A full wave rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 4.1b. In the positive half cycle, the rectifier
A conducts and charges the capacitors Vmax, while in the negative half cycle the rectifier
B conducts and charges the capacitor. The source transformer requires a centre tapped
secondary with a rating of 2 V.
For application at high voltages of 50 kV and above, the rectifier valves used are of
special construction. Apart from the filament, the cathode and the anode, they contain a
protective shield or grid around the filament and the cathode. The anode will be usually a
circular plate. Since the electrostatic field gradient are quiet large, the heater and the
cathode experience large electrostatic forces during the non-conduction periods. To
protect the various elements from these forces, the anode is firmly fixed to the valve
cover on one side. On the other side, where the cathode and filament are located, a steel
mesh structure or a projective grid kept at the cathode potential surrounds them so that
the mechanical forces between the anode and the cathode are reflected on the grid
structure only.
Both full wave and half wave rectifiers produce d.c. voltages less than the a.c.
maximum voltage. Also, ripple or the voltage fluctuation will be present, and this has to
be kept within a resonable limit by means of filters.

Ripple Voltage With Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers

When a full wave or a half wave rectifier is used along with the smooting condenser C,
the voltage on no load will be the maximum a.c. voltage. But when on load, the
condenser gets charged from the supply voltage and discharges into load resistance RL
whenever the supply voltage waveform varies from peak value zero value. These
waveforms are shown in Fig. 4.2. When loaded, a fluctuation in the output d.c. voltage
 V appears, and is called a ripple. The ripple voltage  V is larger for a half wave
rectifier than that for a full wave rectifier, since the discharge period in the case of half
wave rectifier is larger as shown in Fig. 6.2. The ripple  V depends on (a) the supply
voltage frequency f, (b) the time constant CRL , and (c) the reactance of the supply
transformer XL . For half wave rectifiers, the ripple frequency is equal to the supply
frequency and for full wave rectifiers, it is twice that value. The ripple voltage is to
 V

(a)
t

V
δV
(b)
t

V
δV
(c)
t

V δV Vmax
Vmean
V (d)
t

Fig.4.2 Input and output waveforms of half and full wave rectifiers
(a) Input sine wave, (b) Output with half wave rectifier and condenser filter
(c) Output with full wave rectifier and condenser filter, (d) Vmax, Vmean and
ripple voltage, δV with condenser filter of a full wave rectifier

be kept as low as possible with the proper choice of the filter condenser and the
transformer reactance for a given load RL.

4.1.2 Voltage Doubler Circuits

Both full wave and half wave rectifier circuits produce a d.c. voltage less than the a.c.
maximum voltage. When higher d.c. voltyage are needed, a voltage doubler or cascaded
rectifier doubler circuits are used. The schematic diagram of voltage doublers are given
in Figs. 4.3 a and b.
In voltage doubler circuit shown in Fig. 4.3 a, the condenser C1 is charged through
rectifier R to a voltage of + Vmax with polarity as shown in the figure during the negative
half cycle. As the voltage of the transformer rises to positive Vmax during the next half
cycle, the potential of the other terminal of C1 rises to a voltage of +2 Vmax , depending on
the time constant C2RL and the forward charging time constant. The ripple voltage of
these circuits will be about 2% for RL/r  10 and X/r  0.25, where X and r are the
reactance and resistance of the input transformer. The rectifiers are rated to a peak
inverse voltage of 2 Vmax ,and the condensers C1 and C2 must also have the same rating.
If the load current is large, the ripple also is more.
 C1 R2 +

C2
R1
Input RL
a.c. 2V

R4 C4 +
_
T1
_ +
R3 C3 _
T2
(a) Simple voltage doubler RL
4V
R2 C2
2V
V
R1 C1
T1 T

a. c. supply
(b) Cascade voltage doubler

Fig.4.3 Voltage doubler circuits

T1, T2 – h. v. transformers; R1, R2, R3, R4 – rectifiers;
C1, C2, C3, C4 – condensers; RL – load resistance; T – isolating transformer

Cascaded voltage doublers are used when larger output voltages are needed without
changing the input transformer voltage level. A typical voltage doubler is shown Fig.
4.3b. The rectifiers R1 and R2 with transformer T1 and C1 and C2 produce an output
voltage of 2V in the same way as described above. This circuit is duplicated and
connected in series or cascade to obtain a further voltage doubling to 4V. T is an
isolating transformer to give an insulation for 2 Vmax since the transformer T2 is at a
potential of 2 Vmax above the ground. The voltage distrubution along the rectifier string
R1, R2, R3 and R4 is made uniform by having condensers C1, C2, C3 and C4 of equal
values. The arrangement may be extended to give 6V, 8V, and so on by repeating further
stages with suitable isolating transformers. In all the voltage doubler circuits, if valves
are used, the filament transformers have to be suitably designed and insulated, as all the
cathodes will not be at the same potential from ground. The arrangement becomes
cumbersome (large and heavy therefore difficult to carry) if more than 4V is needed with
cascaded stages.
4.1.3 Voltage Multiplier Circuits

Cascaded voltage multiplier circuits for higher voltages are cumbersome and require too
many supply and isolating transformers. İt is possible to generate very high d.c. voltages
from single supply transformers by extending the simple voltage dobler circuits. This is
simple and compact when the load current requirement is less than one milliampere, such
as for cathode ray tubes, etc. Valve type pulse generators may be used instead of
conventional a.c. supply and the circuit becomes compact. A typical circuit of this form
is shown in Fig. 4.4a.

D2n
C2n D2n
D2n-1
D2n-1 C2n
C2n-1 D2n-2 C2n-1
D2n-3 C2n-2

C2n-3
D4
D4
C4 C3 C4
D3 C1 D3
RL
C3 D2 C2 RL D2
D1
C1 Cp C2
Input D1
a.c.
L
P
Vb T
_

(b)
Vg
(a)

Fig.4.4 (a) Cascade rectifier unit with pulse generator, (b) Cockcroft-Walton voltage
multiplier circuit. P – Pulse generator, Vb – D.C. supply to pulse generator, Vg – Bias
voltage

The pulses generated in the anode circuit of the valve P are rectified and the voltage is
cascaded to give an output of 2nV max across the load RL. A trigger voltage pulse of
triangular waveform (ramp) is given to make the valve switched on and off. Thus, a
voltage across the coil L is produced and is equal to Vmax  Imax L/Cp , where Cp is the
stray capacitance across the coil of inductance L. A d.c. power supply of about 500 V
applied to the pulse generator, is sufficient to generate a high voltage d.c. of 50 to 100 kV
with suitable number of stages. The pulse frequency is high (about 500 to 1000 Hz) and
the ripple is quite low (<1%). The voltage drop on load is about 5% for load currents of
about 150  A. The voltage drops rapidly at high load currents.
Voltage multiplier circuit using the Cockcroft-Walton principle is shown in Fig. 4.4b.
The first stage, i.e. D1, D2, C1, C2, and the transformer T are identical, as in the voltage
doubler shown in Fig. 4.3a. For higher output voltage of 4, 6, … 2n of the input voltage
V, the circuit is repeated with cascade or series connection. Thus, the condenser C4 is
charged to 4Vmax and C2 n to 2nVmax above the earth potential. But voltage across and
individual condenser or rectifier is only 2Vmax.

-Ripple in Cascaded Voltages Multiplier Circuits

With load, the output voltage of the cascaded rectifiers is less than 2nV max, where n is the
number of stages. The ripple and the voltage regulation of the rectifier circuit may be
estimated as follows.
f  supply frequency,
q = charge transferred in each cycle,
I1 = load current from the rectifier,
t1  conduction period of the rectifiers,
Let
t 2  non-conduction period of rectifiers, and
 V = ripple voltage.

Referring to Fig. 4.3a, when load current I1 is supplied from condenser C2 to the load
during the non-conduction period t2 is q, and is related as follows.
dq q
I1  
dt t 2

1
t1  t 2 and t1  t 2  (i.e. the period of the a.c. supply voltage),
f
1
t2 
f
Since Also, q=C2 V
I1
Hence,  V=the ripple =
fC 2
I
At the same a charge q is transferred from C1to C 2 during each cycle of x= 1 .
fC1

Hence Regulation =mean voltage drop from 2Vmax

I  1 1 
 1    ( 6 .1)
f  C1 2C 2 
I1  11 1 
Therefore, the mean output voltage= 2Vmax    .
f  C1 2C 2 
For the cascade circuit, on no load, the voltage between stages is raised by 2nVmax for n
stages.
Referring to Fig. 4.4b, to find an expression for the total ripple voltage, let it be assumed
that all capacitances C1 , C 2 ,...C 2n be equal to C let q be the charge transferred from C2n to
I
the load per cycle. Then the ripple at the condenser C2n will be 1 . Simultaneously,
fC
C2n-2 transfers a charge a charge q to the load and to C 2n-1. Hence, the ripple at the
2I
condenser C2n-2 is 1 . Similarly, C2n-4 transfers a charge q to the load, to C 2n-3 , and to
fC
3I
C2n-2 .Therefore, the ripple at condenser C2n-4 is 1 . Proceeding in the same way, the
fC
nI
ripple at C2 will be 1 . Hence, for n stages the total ripple will be
tC
I1 I n n + 1 
 V to ta l  1  2  3 . . .  n   1 ( 6 .2 )
fC fC 2
It can be seen from the above expression that the lowest capacitances  C2 , C4 , etc.
contribute most for the ripple. İf these capacitances are increased proportionately, i.e.
C1and C 2 are made equal to nC, C3 and C4 are made equal to (n-1) C and so on, the total
nI
ripple will be only 1 .
fC

-Regulation or Voltage Drop on Load

In addition to the ripple  V there is a voltage drop V, which is the difference between
the theoretical no load and the on load voltage. From the analysis of the ripple voltage, it
 2nI1 
may be seen that the condenser C2 is not charged to 2Vmax but only to  2Vmax  .
 fC 
 2nI1   2n-1 I1 
Similarly, C2 is charged to only  2Vmax    fC  , as it gives a charge of
  fC  
 2n-1 I1 during the non-conduction period to the load and to the next condenser. Hence,
fC
the total voltage drop at various condenser stages will be
I
V2  1  2n+2  n-1  ...  2.2  1
fC
I
V4  1  2n+2  n-1  ...  2
fC
I
V2n-2  1  2n+n-1
fC
I1
V2n  n
fC
Addition of all the n voltage drops gives
I1
 V   n + 2 n   n - 1   2 n + 2  n - 1   n - 2 + . . . 
fC 
I1  2 1 1 
  n 3  n 2  n  6 .3 
fC  3 2 6 
Here also, it is seen that most of the voltage drop is due to the lowest stage condensers
C1,C2 etc. Hence, it is advantageous to increase their values proportional to the number
of the stage from the top.
n2 n
For large values of n   5  , and terms in Eq. (4.3) will become small compared
2 6
2
to n 3 and may be neclegted; then the optimum number of stages for the minimum
3
voltage drop may be expressed as
Vmax fC
n optimum  (6.4)
I
….. I is the load current.
Thus, for a multiplier or a cascaded circuit with f=50 Hz, C=0.1  F ,
Vmax  100kV and I=5mA, the number of stages n  10.
The regulation can be improved by increasing f, but an upper limit is set by the high
voltage appearing across the inductances and high capacitor current which are
considerable. At present, the Cockcroft – Walton type voltage multiplies are available
using selenium rectifiers and a.c. supply frequencies of 500 to 1000 Hz for output
voltages of more than one million volts and load currents 0f 30 mA.

Van de Graaff Generator

Preliminary Questions
1.A small sphere of radius r and charge q is enclosed by a spherical shell of radius R and
charge Q. Show that if q is positive, charhe q will necessarily flow from the sphere to the
shell (when the two are connected by a wire) no matter what the charge Q on the shell
is.(NCERT PHYSICS).\

[Link] are three concentric and conducting spheres of radius R, 2R and 4R respectively.
Innermost sphere A and the outermost sphere C are coonected by a conducting wires
while the intermediate sphere is uniformly charged to +Q. Find (a) charges on
conductors A and C (b) potential of A and B.
(c)If the spheres A and C are earthed,

A machine to make charges was invented in 1931 by a young American called Dr. Rober
J. Van de Graaff. Huge machines, some over 30 m high, based on his ideas have been
built to produce extremely high voltage (10MV).
A Van de Graaff generator operates by transferring electric charge from a moving belt to
a terminal. The high voltages generated by the Van de Graaff generator can be used for
accelerating subatomic particles to high speeds, making the generator a useful tool for
fundamental physics research.

Working of the generator is based on two principles:

(a)Discharging action of sharp points, ie., electric discharge takes place in air or gases
readily, at pointed conductors.

(b)If the charged conductor is brought in to internal contact with a hollow conductor, all
of its charge transfers to the surface of the hollow conductor no matter how high the
potential of the latter may be.

Theory behind construction:

If we have a large conducting spherical shell of radius ‘R’ on which we place a charge Q,
it spreads itself uniformly all over the sphere. The field outside the sphere is just that of a
point charge Q at the centre, while the field inside the sphere vanishes. So the potential
outside is that of point charge and inside it is constant.
The potential inside the conducting sphere =

Now suppose that we introduce a small sphere of radius ‘r’, carrying a charge q, into the
large one and place it at the centre. The potential due to this new charge has following
values.

Potential due to small sphere of radius r carrying charge

Potential at the surface of large shellof radius R .

Taking both charges q and Q in to account we have for the total potential V and the
potential difference given by,

Now assume that q is positive. We see that, independent of the amount of charge Q that
may have accumulated on the larger sphere, it is always at a higher potential: the
difference V(r) - V(R) is positive. The potential due to Q is constant upto radius R and so
cancels out in the difference.

This means that if we connect the smaller and larger sphere by a wire, the charge q on the
former will immediately flow on to the matter, even though the charge Q may be quite
large. The natural tendency is for positive charge to move higher to lower potential. Thus,
provided we are somehow able to introduce the small charged sphere into the larger one,
we can in this way pile up larger and larger amount of charge on the latter. The potential
of the outer sphere would also keep rising, at least until it reaches the breakdown field of
air.

Construction:

A simple Van de Graaff-generator consists of an endless belt of silk/rubber/Teflon, or a

similar flexible dielectric material, running over two vertically mounted metal pulleys,
upper one of which is surrounded by a hollow metal sphere. The belt is run by an electric
motor. Two electrodes, in the form of comb-shaped rows of sharp metal points, are
positioned respectively near to the bottom of the lower pulley and inside the sphere, over
the upper pulley. Upper Comb is connected to the sphere, and lower comb to the ground

The positive terminal of a high tension source (HT) is connected to the lower comb.
Charges are accumulated at the pointed ends of the comb, the electric field field increases
and ionizes the air near them. The positive charges in air are repelled and get deposited
on the belt due to corona discharge. The charges are carried by the belt upwards as it
moves. When the positively charged portion of the belt comes in front of the upper
collecting comb, by the same process of action of points and corona discharge occurs and
the metal sphere acquires positive charges. The positive charges are uniformly distributed
over the surface of the sphere.

The uncharged portion of the belt returns down collects the positive charge from lower
comb which in turn is collected upper comb. The charge transfer process is repeated. As
more and more positive charges are imparted to the sphere, its positive potential goes on
rising. Leakage of charges in the belt and load puts a limit to generation. If the potential
goes beyond this, insulation property of air breaks down and the sphere gets discharged.

Since a Van de Graaff generator can supply the same small current at almost any level of
electrical potential, it is an example of a nearly ideal current source. The maximum
achievable potential is approximately equal to the sphere's radius multiplied by the e-field
where corona discharges begin to form within the surrounding gas.

Can we accelerate negative charges in a Van-de-Graff generator?

Yes, to accelerate electons, the spherical metallic globe should be at negative potential.
For this the polarity of the generator is reversed.
Prob.
Calculate the rate in rise of voltage for such electrostatic generator using SF6 gas at 10
atmospheric pressure with C= !000pF, belt width = 3m, belt speed= 200 m/min, charge
density= 14 × 10-6 coul/sq. m.

5.1 GENERATION OF HIGH ALTERNATING VOLTAGES

When test voltage requirements are less than about 300kV, a single transformer can be
used for test purposes. The impedance of the transformer should be generally less than
5% and must be capable of giving the short circuit current for one minute or more
depending on the design. In addition to the normal windings, namely, the low voltage
windings, a third windings known as meter windings is provided to measure the output
voltage. For higher voltage requirements, a single unit construction becomes difficult
and costly due to insulation problems. Moreover, transportation and erection of large
transformers become difficult. These drawbacks are by series connection or cascading of
the several identical units of transformers, where in the high voltage windings of all the
units effectively come in series.
.

b´

a´
c´ V
1

b´ c a
b
3V2
a´
c´ V
1

b´ c a 2V2
b 2V2
a´
V2 g
input V1 b V2

a d

Fig.5.1 Cascade transformer connection (schematic)

V1 – Input voltage; V2 – output voltage; aa´ - L.V. primary winding;
bb´- H.V. secondary winding; cc´- Excitation winding; bd – Meter
winding (200 to 500); g – Insulation (pillars or post insulators);
V - Voltmeter

5.1.1 Cascade Transformers

Figure 5.1 shows the cascade transformer units in which the first transformer is at the
ground potential along with its tank. The second transformer is kept on insulators and
maintained at a potential of V2, the output voltage of the first unit above the ground. The
high voltage winding of the first unit is connected to the tank of the second unit. The low
voltage winding of this unit is supplied from the excitation winding of the first
transformer, which is in series with the high voltage winding of the first transformer at its
high voltage end. The rating of the excitation windings is almost identical to that of the
primary or the low or the low voltage winding. The high voltage connection from the
first transformer winding and the excitation winding terminal are taken through a bushing
to the second transformer. In a similar manner, the third transformer is kept on insulators
above the ground at a potential of 2V2 and is supplied likewise from the second
transformer. The number of stages in this type of arrangement are usually two four, but
very often, three stages are adapted to facilitate a three-phase operation so that 3V2 can
be obtained between the lines.
Supply to the units can be obtained from a motor-generator set or through an induction
regulstor for variation of the output voltage. The rating of the primary or the low voltage
windings is usually 230 or 400 V for small units up to 100 kVA. For larger outputs the
rating of the low voltage winding may be 3.3 kV, 6.6kV or 11 kV.

3V2

2 T3
2V2

T2 Is3 3
C3
V2 2

C2
3 Is1 Is2 1
1
V1 2 C1
3

1 2

Fig. 5.2 Cascade transformer unit with isolating transformer for excitation
T1, T2, T3 – Cascade transformer units
Is1, Is2, Is3 – Isolation transformer units
C1, C2, C3 – Capacitance voltage dividers for h.v. measurement after 1st, 2nd and
rd
3 stages
 1 ,  2 ,  3 - For metering after 1st, 2nd and 3rd stages
1. Primary (l.v. winding), 2. h.v. winding, 3. excitation winding.

In figure Fig. 5.2, a second scheme for providing the excitation to the second and the
third stages is shown. Isolating transformers Is1 , Is2and I s3 are 1:1 ratio transformers and
are meant for supplying the excitation for the second and the third stages at their tank
potentials. Power supply to the isolating transformers is also fed from the same a.c.
input. This scheme is expensive and requires more space. The advantage of this scheme
is that the natural cooling is sufficient and the transformers are light and compact.
Transportation and assembly is easy. Also the construction is identical for isolating
transformers and the high voltage cascade units. Three phase connection in delta or star
is possible for three units. Testing transformers of ratings up to 10 MVA are cascade
connection to give high voltages up to 2.25 MV are available for both indoor and outdoor
applications.

In order to reduce the size and cost of the insulation, sometimes transformers with a
centre tap on high voltage windings earthed or connected to the tank are used. This
connection results in a cheaper construction, and the high voltage insulation now needs to
be designed for V2 / 2 , that of second transformer at 3V2 / 2 , and that of the third
transformer at 5V2 / 2.
All the cascade transformer units which are meant for the supply of excitation to the
next stage have large leakage between the primary (or the low voltage winding) and the
excitation windings. Hence, they are invariably provided with compensating windings.

5.1.2 Resonant Transformers

The equivalent circuit of a high voltage testing transformer consist of the leakage
reactances of the windings, the windings resistances, the magnetizing reactance, and the
shunt capacitance across the output terminal due to the bushing of the high voltage
terminal and also that of the test object. This is shown in Fig.5.3.

L L
L1 r1 L2 r2

h.v
~ R0 L0 C
C
a.c supply

Fig.5.3 Resonant transformer and equivalent circuit. T – Testing transformer;

L – choke; C – Capacitance of a h.v. terminal and test object;
L0 – Magnetizing inductance; L1, L2 – Leakage inductance of the
transformer; r1, r2 – resistance of the windings; R0 – Resistance due to core
loss

It may be seen that it is possible to have series resonance at power frequency

 ,  L1  L 2   1/ C. With this condition, the current in the tests object is very large and
is limited only by the resistance of the circuit. The waveform of the voltage across the
test object will be purely sinusoidal. The magnitude of the voltage across the capacitance
C of the test object will be
 jVX c V V
Vc   XC  (6.8)
R+j  X L -X C  R  CR
where R is the total series resistances of the circuit.
The factor X C /R is the Q factor of the circuit and gives the magnitude of the voltage
multiplication across the test object under resonance conditions. Therefore, the input
voltage required for excitation is reduced by a factor 1/Q, and the output kVA required is
also reduced by a factor 1/Q. the secondary power factor of the circuit is unity.
This principle is utilized in testing at very high voltage and on occasions requiring large
current outputs such as cable testing, dielectric loss measurements, partial discharge
measurements, etc. a transformer with 50 to 100 kV voltage rating and a relatively large
current rating is connected together with an additional choke, if necessary. The test
condition is set such that   Le  L   1/ C where Le is the total equivalent leakage
inductance of the transformer including its regulating transformer. The chief advantages
of this principle are:
a) it gives an output of pure sine wave,
b) power requirements are less (5 to 10% of total kVA required),
c) no high power arcing and heavy current surges occur if the test object failed, as
resonance ceases at the failure of the test object,
d) cascading is also possible for very high voltage,
e) simple and compact test arrangement, and
f) no repeated flashovers occur in case of partial failures of the test object and
insulation recovery. It can be shown that the supply source takes Q number of
cycles at least to charge the test specimen to the full voltage.
The disadvantages are the requirements of additional variable chokes capable of
withstanding the full test voltage and the full current rating.

5.2.3 Generation of High Frequency a.c. High Voltages

High frequency high voltage are required for rectifier d.c. power supplies as discussed.
Also, for testing electrical apparatus for switching surges, high frequency high voltage
damped oscillators are needed which need high voltage high frequency transformers.
The advantages of these high frequency transformers are:
i) the absence of iron core in transformers and hence saving in cost and size,
ii) pure since wave output,
iii) slow build-up of voltage over a cycles and hence no damage due to switching
surges, and
iv) uniform distribution of voltage across the winding coils due to subdivision of
coil stack into a number of units.
The commonly used high frequency resonant transformer is the Tesla coil, which is a
doubly tuned resonant circuit shown schematically in Fig. 5.4a.
 C1
V2

V1

supply Spark C2
gap V2
L1 time
L2

(b) Output waveform

(a) Equivalent circuit

Fig.5.4 Tesla coil equivalent circuit and its output waveform

The primary voltage rating is 10 kV and the secondary may be rated to as high as 500
to 1000 kV. The primary is fed form a.d.c. or a.c. supply through the condenser C1 .
A spark gap G connected across the primary is triggered at the desired voltage V1
which induces a high self excitation in the secondary. The primary and the secondary
windings  L1and L2  are wound on an insulated former with no core (air cored) and
are immersed in oil. The windings are tuned to a frequency of 10 to 100kHz by means
of the condensers C1and C 2 . The output voltage V2 is a function of the parameters L1,
L2, C1, C2, and the mutual inductances M. usually, the windings resistance will be
small and contribute only for damping of the oscillations.

The analysis of the output waveform can be done in a simple manner neglecting the
winding resistance. Let the condenser C1 be charged to a voltage V1 when the spark
gap is triggered. Let a current i1 flow through the primary windings L1 and produce a
current i2 through L2 and C2 .
Then,
t
1 di di
V1   dt+L1 1  M 2
C1 0 dt dt
t
(6.9)
1 di 2 di1
and,0= dt+L 2 M
C 2 0 dt dt
The Laplace transformed equations for the above are,
V1  1 
  L1 s   I1  MsI2
s  C1 s 
(6.10)
 1 
and, 0=  Ms  I1   L 2 s   I2
 C1 s 
where I1and I2 are the Laplace transformed values of i1 and i 2 .
The output voltage V2across the condunser C2 is
 t
1
V2  i 2 dt ; or its transformed equation is
C 2 0
I2
V 2 s   ( 6 .1 1)
C2s
where, V2  s  is the Laplace transform of V2 .
The solution for V2 from the above equations will be
M V1 1
V2   cos  1t  cos  2 t  (6.12)
 L 1 L 2 C 1  2   12 
2

where,
M2
2   1K 2
L1L 2
K=coefficient of coupling between the windings L1 and L 2
2
 2  22   2  22 
 1 2 1  K 
2 2 2
 1,2  1   1
2  2 
1 1
1  and  2 
L1C1 L 2 C2

The output waveform is shown in Fig. 6.13b.

The peak amplitude of the secondary voltage V2 can be expresses as,
L2
V 2 m a x  V 1e  6 .1 3 
L1
2 1-
e=
2
1+a  4 a
where,
L 2 C 2 21
a= 
L1C1 22
A more simplified analysis for the Tesla coil may be presented by considering that the
energy stored in the primary circuit in the capacitance C1 is transferred to C2 via the
magnetic coupling. If W1 is the energy stored in C1 and W2 is the energy transferred to
C2 and if efficiency of the transformer is  , then
1 1 
W1  C1V12    C2 V22   6.14 
2 2 
C
from which V2   1 (6.14a)
C2
It can be shown that if the coefficient of coupling K is large oscillation frequency is less,
and for large values of the winding resistance and K, the waveform may become a
unidirectional impulse. This is shown in the next sections while dealing with the
generation of switching surges.
[Link] OF IMPULSE VOLTAGES

6.0 Standard Impulse Wave-shapes

Transient over voltages due to lightning and switching surges cause steep build-up of
voltage on transmission lines and other electrical apparatus. Experimental investigations
showed that these waves have rise time of 0.5 to 10  s and decay time to 50% of peak
value of the order of 30 to 200  s. The wave-shapes are arbitrary, but mostly
unidirectional. It is shown that lighting over-voltage wave can be represented as double
exponential waves defined by the equation
V=V0 exp  -at  -exp  -βt    6.15 
where  and  are constants of microsecond values.
The above equation represents a unidirectional wave which usually has a rapid rise to the
peak value and slowly falls zero value.
The general wave-shape is given in Fig. 6.14. Impulse wave are specified by defining
their rise or front time, fall or tail time to 50% peak value, and the value of the peak
voltage. Thus 1.2/50  s, 1000 kV wave represents an impulse voltage wave with a front
time of 1.2  s, fall time to 50% peak value of 50  s, and a peak value of 1000 kV.
When impulse wave-shapes are recorded, the initial portion of the wave will not be
clearly defined or sometimes will be missing. Moreover, due to disturbances it may
contain superimposed oscillations in the rising portion. Hence, the front and tail times
have to be defined.
Referring to the wave-shape in Fig. 6.14, the peak value A is fixed and referred to as
100% value. The points corresponding to 10% and 90% of the peak values are located in
the front portion (points C and D).

V%
A
100
D
90
70 G
E
50
F B
30
C
10
O t t’ t t t4 t
1 1 2 3

O1

Fig.6.1 Impulse waveform and its definitions

The line joining these points is extended to cut the time axis at O1 .O1 is taken
as the virtual origin. 1.25 times the interval between times t 1 and t2 corresponding to
points C and D (projections on the time axis) is defined as the front time, i.e. 1.25
 O1t2  O1t1  .
The point E is located on the wave tail corresponding to 50% of the peak
value, and its projection on the time axis t 4. Ot4 is defined as the fall or tail time. In case
the point C is not clear or missing from the wave-shape record, the point corresponding to
30% peak value F is taken and its projection t 1 is located on time axis. The wave front
time in that case will be defined as 1.67  O1t3  O1t1  . The tolerances that can be allowed
in the front and tail times are respectively 30% and  20%. Indian standard
specifications define 1.2/50  s wave as standard impulses. Considering the tolerances
allowed, all the above wave-shapes overlap and give rise to a wave-shape which lies
within the specified limits. The tolerance allowed in the peak value is 3%.
The impulse waves are generally represented by the Eq. (6.15) given earlier. V0 in the
equation represents a factor that depends on the peak value. For impulse wave of 1.2/50
 s, a=0.0146,   2.467, and V0  1.04 when time t is expressed in microseconds.
 and  control the front and tail time of the wave respectively.
A double exponential waveform of the type mentioned in Eq. (6.15) may be produced in
the laboratory with a combination of a series R-L-C circuit under overdamped condition
or by the combination of two R-C circuits. Different equivalent circuits that produce
impulse waves are given in Figs. 6.15 a to e. Out of these circuits, the ones shown in
Figs. 6.2a to d are commonly used. Circuit shown in Fig. 6.15a is limited to model
generators only, and commercial generators employ circuits shown in Figs. 6.2b to 6.2d.

S L S R1

+ +
V C R V0(t) V C1 R2 C2 V0(t)
- -

(a) (b)

S R1
S R1 R1
+
V C1 R2 C2 V0(t) +
- V C1 R2 C2 V0(t)
-

(c)
(d)

R’1 R1 R1' R 2'

+
- C1 
V0(t) R1 R 2
S
R’2 R2
+
- C2

(e)
Fig.6.2 Circuits for producing impulse waves
A capacitor C1 or C previously charged to a particular d.c. voltage is suddenly discharged
into the wave-shaping network  LR,R1 ,R 2C 2or other combination  by closing the switch
S. The discharge voltage V0  t  shown in Fig. 6.2 gives rise to the desired double
exponential wave-shape.

Analysis of Impulse Generator Circuit Series

R-L-C Type

Referring to Fig. 6.15 the current through the load resistance R is given by
t
1 di
V=  idt+Ri+L  6.16 
C0 dt
with initial condition at t=0 being i(0)=0 and the net charge in the circuit i=dq/dt=0.
Writing the above equation as a Laplace transformer equation,
 1 
V/s =  + R+ Ls  I  s 
 Cs 
 
V 1 
or, I s  =  
L  s2 + R s + 1 
 L LC 
The voltage across the resistor R (Which is the output) is,
v0  s   I  s  R, hence,
R 1
v 0  s  =V
L s2 + R s + 1
L LC
For an overdamkped condition, R/2L  1/ LC
2
R 2 1 R  R  1
Hence, the roots of the equation s + s + are   s1       ,
L LC 2L  2L  LC
2
R  R  1
  s2      
2L  2L  LC
 R 
V 
The solution of the equation for  0 t  is, 0 t    2L  e t

 e  t =
1
2
R 1  2

 2  LC 
 4L 

V0 e t  e t 
 R  1
The sum of the roots        and the product of the roots are   
 2L  LC
The wave front and the wave tail times are controlled by changing the values of R and L
simultaneously with a given generator capacitance C; choosing a suitable value for L. 
or the wave front time is determined and  or the wave tail time is controlled by the
value of R in the circuit. The advantage of this circuit is its simplicity. But the
waveshape control is not flexible and independent. Another disadvantage is that the basic
circuit is altered when a test object which will be mainly capacitive in nature, is
connected across the output. Hence, the waveshape gets changed with the change of test
object.

Analysis of the Other Impulse Circuits

The most commonly used configurations for impulse generators are the circuits shown in
Fig. 6.2b and c. The advantages of these circuits are that the wave front and wave tail
times are independently controlled by changing either R1 or R 2 separately. Secondly, the
test object which are mainly capacitive in nature from part of C2 .
For the configuration shown in Fig. 6.2 b, the output voltage across C2 is given by,
1 t 1
v 0 (t )   i2 dt . Performing Laplace transformation, I 2 ( s )  v 0 ( s ) where I2 is the
C2 0 C2 s
current through C2. Taking the current through C1 as I1 and its transformed value as I1(s),
 
 
I 2 ( s)   R2  I ( s ) and I ( s )  V 1
1 1
 1  s 1
 R2   1
 C2 s  R1 
C1 s
C1 s  R1 
1
R2 
C2 s
Substitution of I1(s) gives v0(s) and simplifying and taking inverse transform of
V
v0  t    exp   t   exp    t    6.20 
R1C2     
1 1
Usually, will be much smaller compared to .
C1 R1 R 1C1
Hence, the roots may be approximated as
1 1
  and ,    6 .2 1 
R1C 2 R2C1
Following a similar analysis, it may be shown that the output waveform for the circuit
VCR2
v0  t    exp   t   exp    t  
   a 
configuration of Fig. 6.2c will be
where  and are the roots of the Eq. (6.19). The approximate values of  and  given
by Eq. (6.21) are valid for this circuit also. The equivalent circuit given in Fig. 6.2d is a
combination of the configurations of Fig. 6.15b and 6.15c. The resistance R1 is made
into two parts and kept on either side R2 to give greater flexibility for the circuits.
The configuration of Fig. 6.15e is not commonly used. It is useful only for testing high
inductance test objects such as transformers.

Restrictions on the Ratio of the Generator and Load Capacitance, C1/C2 on the Circuit
Performance

For a given waveshape, the choice of R1 and R2 to control the wave front and wave tail
times is not entirely independent but depends on the ratio of C1/ C2. It can be shown
R 2 =P  y  /C1 and R 1 =Q  y  /C1
mathematically that where y=C1C 2 and P and Q are

functions of y. in order to get real values for R1 and R2 for a given waveshape, a
maximum and minimum value of y exists in practice. This is true whether the
configuration of Fig. 6.2b or 6.2c is used. For example, with the circuit of Fig. 6.15b, the
ratio of C1/C2 cannot exceed 3.35 for a 1/5  s waveshape. Similarly, for a 1/50  s
waveshape the ratio C1/C2 lies between 106.5. If the configuration chosen is 6.15c, the
minimum value of C1/C2 for 1/5  s waveshape is about 0.01. The reader is referred to
High Voltage Laboratory Techniques by Craggs and Meek for further discussion on the
restrictions imposed on the ratio C1/C2.

Effect of Circuit Inductances and Series Resistance on the Impulse Generator Circuits

The equivalent circuits shown in Fig. 6.2 a to e, in practice several stray series
inductances. Further, the circuits occupy considerable space and will be spread over
several meters in testing laboratory. Each component has some residual inductances and
the circuit loop itself contributes for further inductance. The actual value of the
inductance may vary from 10  H to several hundreds of microhenries. The effect of the
inductance is to cause oscillations in the wave front and in the wave tail portions.
Sometimes, in order to control the front time a small inductance is added.

Waveshape Control

Generally, for a given impulse generator of Fig. 6.2b or c the generator capacitance C1
and load capacitance C2 will be fixed depending on the design of the generator and the
test object. Hence, the desires waveshape is obtained by controlling R1 and R2. The
following approximate analysis is used to calculate the wave front and wave tail times.
The resistance R2 will be large. Taking the circuit inductance to be negligible during
charging, C1 charges the load capacitance C2 through R1. Then the time taken for
charging is approximately three times the time constant of the circuit and is given by

C1C2 CC
t1  3.0 R1  3R1Ce  6.22  where Ce  1 2 . If If R1 is
C1  C2 C1 C2
given in ohms and Ce in microfarads, t1 is obtained in microseconds.
For discharging or tail time, the capacitance C1 and C2 may be considered to be in parallel
and discharging occurs R1 and R2 . Hence, the time for 50% discharge is approximately
given by t2  0.7  R1  R2  C1  C2   6.23
These formulae for t1 and t2 hold good for the equivalent circuits are shown in Fig. 6.2b
and c. For the circuit given in Fig. 6.2d, R is to be taken as 2 R1. With the approximate
formulae, the wave front and wave tail times can be estimated to within 20% for the
standard impulse waves.

6.4 GENERATION OF IMPULSE CURRENTS

Lightning discharges involve both high voltage impulses and high current impulses on
transmission lines. Protective gear like surge diverters have to discharge the lightning
currents without damage. Therefore, generation of impulse current waveforms of high
magnitude   100kA peak  find application in testing work as well as in basic research on
non-linear resistors, electric are studies, and studies relating to electric plasmas in high
current discharges.

6.4.1 Definition of Impulse Current Waveforms

The waveshape used in testing surge diverters are 4/10 and 8/20  s, the figures
respectively representing the nominal wave front and wave tail times (see Fig. 6.14). the
tolerances allowed on these times are 10% only. Apart from the standard impulse
current, waves, rectangular waves of long duration are also used for testing. The
waveshape should be nominally rectangular in shape. The rectangular waves generally
have durations of the order of 5.0 ms, with rise and fall times of the order 0f 0.5 to 5.0
ms, with rise and fall times of the waves being less than 10% of their total duration.
The tolerance allowed on the peak value is +20% and -0% (the peak value may be more
than the specified value but not less). The duration of the wave is at least defined as the
total time of the wave during which the current is least 10% of its peak value.

6.4.2 Circuits for Producing Impulse Current Waves

For producing impulse currents of large value, a bank of capacitors connected in parallel
are charged to a specified value and are discharged through a series R-L circuit as shown
in Fig. 6.20.
 im
(KA)
L
G im
C
R
t, µs

(a) Basic circuit of an impulse (b) Impulse current waveform

current generator

Fig. 6.3 Impulse current generator circuit and its waveform

C represents a bank of capacitors connected in parallel which are charged from a d.c.
source to a voltage up to 200 kV. R represents the dynamic resistance of the rest object
and the resistance of the circuit and the shunt. L is an air cored high current inductor,
usually a spiral tube of a few turns.
If the capacitor is charged to a voltage V and discharged when the spark gap is triggered,
the current i m will be given by the equation
t
di 1
V  Rim  L m   im dt  6.24 
dt C 0
R L
The circuit is usually under damped, so that  . Hence i m is given by,
2 C
V t R 1 R2
im  e sin( t ) where   and    2
L 2L LC 4 L
The time taken for the current i m to rise from zero to the first peak value is
1 
t1  t f  sin 1  6.26 
 LC
The duration for one half cycle of the damped oscillatory wave t2 is,

t2   6.27
1 R2

LC 4L2
It can be shown that the maximum value of i m normally independent of the value of V C
1
for a given energy W  CV 2 , and the effective inductance L. it is also clear form Eq.
2
(6.25) that a low inductance is needed in order to get high current magnitudes for a given
charging voltage V.
For an 8/20  s standard impulse current wave a  0.0535 106 and   0.113 106
when R,L and C are expressed in ohms, microhenries, and microfarads respectively. The
product of LC=65. Hence, knowing the value of the generator capacitance, L can be
calculated as L=65/C,and R can be obtained from Eq. (6.25a) as R=2 La. The peak value
of im  I p is given by (VC)/14 when V is kV. I p in kilo-amperes, and C in microfarads.

6.4.3 Generation of High Impulse Currents

For producing large values of impulse currents, a number of capacitors are charged in
parallel and discharge in parallel into the circuit. In order to minimize the effective
inductance, the capacitors are subdivided into smaller units.
If there are n1 groups of capacitors, each consisting of n2 units and if L0 is the inductance
of the common discharge path, L1 is that of each group and L2 is that of each unit, then
L L
the effective inductance L is given by L  L0  1  2
n n1n2
Also, the arrangement of capacitors into a horse-shoe layout minimizes the effective load
inductance.
The essential parts of an impulse current generator are:
(i) a.d.c charging unit giving a variable voltage to the capacitor bank,
(ii) capacitors of high value (0.5 to 5  F ) each with very low self inductance,
capable of giving high short circuit currents,
(iii) an additional air cored inductor of high current value,
(iv) proper shunts and oscillograph for measurement purposes, and
(v) a triggering unit and spark gap for the initiation of the current generator.

Questions
6.1 Explain with diagrams, different types of rectifier circuits for producing high d.c.
voltages.
6.2 Why is a Cockcroft-Walton circuit preferred for voltage multiplier circuits? Explain
its working with a schematic diagram.
6.3 Give the expression for ripple and regulation in voltage multiplier circuits. How are
the ripple and regulation minimized?
6.4 Explain the different schemes of cascade connection of transformers for producing
very high a.c. voltages,
6.5 Why is it preferable to use isolating transformers for excitation with cascade
transformer units, if the power requirement is large?
6.6 What is the principle of operation of a resonant transformer? How is it advantageous
over the cascade connected transformers?
6.7 What is a Tesla coil? How are damped high frequency oscillations obtained from a
Tesla coil?
6.8 Define the front and tail times of an impulse wave. What are the tolerances allowed
as per the specifications?
6.9 Give different circuits that produce impulse wave explaining clearly their relative
merits and demerits.
6.10 Describe the circuit arrangement for producing lightning current wave-forms in
laboratories.
6.11 How is the circuit inductance controlled and minimized in impulse current
generators?
Prob. An impulse generator has eight stages with each condenser rated for 0.16µFD and
125 kV. The load capacitor available is 1000 pFD. Find the series resistance and damping
resistance needed to produce standard lighting impulse. If the charging voltage is 120 kV,
what is the maximum output voltage and discharge energy?

[Link] of High Voltages and Currents

The devices and instruments for measurement of high voltages and currents differ vastly
from the low voltage and low current devices.
7.1 MEASUREMENT OF HIGH DIRECT CURRENT VOLTAGES
High voltages can be measured in a variety of ways. Direct measurement of high voltages is
possible up to about 200 kV, and several forms of voltmeters have been devised which can be
connected directly across the test circuit. High Voltages are also measured by stepping down the
voltage by using transformers and potential dividers. The sparkover of sphere gaps and other gaps
are also used, especially in the calibration of meters in high voltage measurements. Transient
voltages may be recorded through potential dividers and oscilloscopes.
Lightning surges may be recorded using the Klydonograph.
Direct Measurement of High Voltages
7.1.1 Electrostatic Voltmeters
Principle is used in electrostatic voltmeter?
If the electric field is produced by the voltage V between a pair of parallel plate disc
electrodes, the force F on an area A of the electrode, for which the field gradient E is the
same across the area and perpendicular to the surface.

One of the direct methods of measuring high voltages is by means of electro-static voltmeters.
For voltages above 10 kV, generally the attracted disc type of electrostatic voltmeter is used.
When two parallel conducting plates (cross section area A and spacing x) are charged q and have
a potential difference V, then the energy stored in the is given by
Energy stored W = ½ C V2 so that change d W = ½ V2 d C = F d x
Force F=½ V2 (dC/dx) Newton=1/2 AЄ(V2/x2).

It is thus seen that the force of attraction is proportional to the square of the potential difference
applied, so that the meter reads the square value (or can be marked to read the rms value).
Electrostatic voltmeters of the attracted disc type may be connected across the high voltage circuit
directly to measure up to about 200 kV, without the use of any potential divider or other reduction
method. [The force in these electrostatic instruments can be used to measure both a.c. and d.c.
voltages].
7.1.2Sphere gaps
The sphere gap method of measuring high voltage is the most reliable and is used as the standard
for calibration purposes. The breakdown strength of a gas depends on the ionisation of the gas
molecules, and on the density of the gas. As such, the breakdown voltage varies with the gap
spacing; and for a uniform field gap, a high consistency could be obtained, so that the sphere gap
is very useful as a measuring device. By precise experiments, the breakdown voltage variation
with gap spacing, for different diameters and distances, have been calculated and represented in
charts. In the measuring device, two metal spheres are used, separated by a gas-gap. The potential
difference between the spheres is raised until a spark passes between them. The breakdown
strength of a gas depends on the size of the spheres, their distance apart and a number of other
factors. A spark gap may be used for the determination of the peak value of a voltage wave, and
for the checking and calibrating of voltmeters and other voltage measuring devices. The density
of the gas (generally air) affects the spark-over voltage for a given gap setting. Thus the
correction for any air density change must be made. The air density correction factor
δ=0.386P/(273+t)
The spark over voltage for a given gap setting under the standard conditions (760 torr pressure
and at 20oC) must be multiplied by the correction factor to obtain the actual spark-over voltage.
The breakdown voltage of the sphere gap (figure 6.2) is almost independent of humidity of the
atmosphere, but the presence of dew on the surface lowers the breakdown voltage and hence
invalidates the calibrations.

The breakdown voltage characteristic (figure 6.3) has been determined for similar pairs of spheres
(diameters 62.5 mm, 125 mm, 250 mm, 500 mm, 1 m and 2 m)

When the gap distance is increased, the uniform field between the spheres becomes distorted, and
accuracy falls.
The limits of accuracy are dependant on the ratio of the spacing d to the sphere diameter D, as
follows. d < 0.5 D, accuracy = ± 3 %; 0.75 D > d > 0.5 D, accuracy = ± 5 %
For accurate measurement purposes, gap distances in excess of 0.75D are not used.

The breakdown voltage characteristic is also dependant on the polarity of the high voltage sphere
in the case of asymmetrical gaps (i.e. gaps where one electrode is at high voltage and the other at
a low voltage or earth potential). If both electrodes are at equal high voltage of opposite polarity
(i.e. + ½ V and - ½ V), as in a symmetrical gap, then the polarity has no effect. Figure 6.4 shows
these breakdown voltage variations. In the case of the asymmetrical gap, there are two breakdown
characteristics; one for the positive high voltage and the other for the negative high voltage. Since
the breakdown is caused by the flow of electrons, when the high voltage electrode is positive, a
higher voltage is generally necessary for breakdown than when the high voltage electrode is
negative. However, when the gaps are very far apart, then the positive and the negative
characteristics cross over due to various space charge effects. But this occurs well beyond the
useful operating region. Under alternating voltage conditions, breakdown will occur
corresponding to the lower curve (i.e. in the negative half cycle under normal gap spacings). Thus
under normal conditions, the a.c. characteristic is the same as the negative characteristic.

In sphere gaps used in measurement, to obtain high accuracy, the minimum clearance to be
maintained between the spheres and the neighbouring bodies and the diameter of shafts are also
specified, since these also affect the accuracy (figure 6.5). There is also a tolerance specified for
the radius of curvature of the spheres. "The length of any diameter shall not differ from the
correct value by more than 1% for spheres of diameter up to 100 cm or more than 2% for larger
spheres". Peak values of voltages may be measured from 2 kV up to about 2500 kV by means of
spheres. One sphere may be earthed with the other being the high voltage electrode, or both may
be supplied with equal positive and negative voltages with respect to earth (symmetrical gap).
When spark gaps are to be calibrated using a standard sphere gap, the two gaps should not be
connected in parallel. Equivalent spacing should be determined by comparing each gap in turn
with a suitable indicating instrument.
Needle gaps may also be used in the measurement of voltages up to about 50 kV, but errors are
caused by the variation of the sharpness of the needle gaps, and by the corona forming at the
points before the gap actually sparks over. Also the effect of the variation of the humidity of the
atmosphere on such gaps is much greater.
Usually, a resistance is used in series with the sphere gap, of about 1ohm/V sparkover conditions
to about a maximum of 1 A.
However for impulse measurements, a series resistance must not be used since this causes a large
drop across the resistance. In measuring impulse voltages, since the breakdown does not occur at
exactly the same value of voltage each time, what is generally specified is the 50 % breakdown
value. A number of impulses of the same value is applied and a record is kept of the number of
times breakdown occurs, and a histogram is plotted with the peak value of the impulse voltage
and the percentage of breakdown (figure 6.6).

The factors that are influencing the peak voltage measurement using sphere gap are
(i)Nearby earthed objects (ii)Atmosphere conditions (iii)Influence of humidity
(iii)Irradiation (iv)Polarity and rise time of voltage waveform (v)Switching surge

7.1.3 GENERATING VOLTMETER(GVM)

A generating voltmeter is a variable capacitor voltage generator which generates current
proportional to the voltage to be measured. It provides loss free measurement of D.C and
A.C voltages. It is driven by a synchronous motor and does not absorb power or energy
from the voltage measuring source.
Whenever the source loading is not permitted or when direct connection to the high
voltage source is to be avoided, the generating principle is employed for the measurement
of high voltages, A generating voltmeter is a variable capacitor electrostatic voltage
generator which generates current proportional to the voltage to be measured. Similar to
electrostatic voltmeter the generating voltmeter provides loss free measurement of d.c.
and a.c. voltages. The device is driven by an external constant speed motor and does not
absorb power or energy from the voltage measuring source. The principle of operation is
explained with the help of Fig. 4.8. H is a high voltage electrode and the earthed
electrode is subdivided into a sensing or pick up electrode P, a guard electrode G and a
movable electrode M, all of which are at the same potential. The high voltage electrode H
develops an electric field between itself and the electrodes P, G and M. The field lines are
shown in Fig. 7.1. The electric field density is also shown. If electrode M is fixed and
the voltage V is changed, the field density would change and thus a current i (t) would
flow between P and the ground.

Fig.7.1 Principle of generating voltmeter

The high voltage electrode and the grounded electrode in fact constitute a capacitance
system. The capacitance is, however, a function of time as the area A varies with time
and, therefore, the charge q(t) is given as q(t)=C(t)V(t)

Fig. 7.2 Capacitance and voltage variation

Differentiating with respect to t gives i(t)=dq/dt= V(dC/dt) for DC voltage application.

Fig.7.3 schematic diagram of a generating voltmeter

GVM shown in Fig.7.3 which employs rotating vanes for variation of capacitance. The high voltage
electrode is connected to a disc electrode D3 which is kept at a fixed distance on the axis of the other
low voltage electrodes D2, D1, and D0. The rotor D0 is driven at a constant speed by a synchronous
motor at a suitable speed. The rotor vanes of D0 cause periodic change in capacitance between the
insulated disc D2 and the high voltage electrode D3. The number and shape of vanes are so designed
that a suitable variation of capacitance (sinusodial or linear) is achieved. The a.c. current is rectified
and is measured using moving coil meters. If the current is small an amplifier may be used before the
current is measured.
Advantages of generating Volmeter: (i) Scale is linear and extension of voltage range is
easy (ii) Source loading is zero (iii) It can measure wide range of voltages (iv) There is
no connection to [Link].
Disadvantage: (i) need calibration (ii) Careful construction is needed (iii) Disturbance in
position and mounting of the electrodes make the calibration invalid.

7.2 THE CHUBB-FORTESCUE METHOD (for peak Ac HV measurement)

Simple and accurate method for the peak measurement of a.c. voltages.
7.3 Voltage dividers

Voltages dividers for a.c., d.c. or impulse voltages may consist of resistors or capacitors or a
convenient combination of these elements. Inductors are normally not used as voltage dividing
elements as pure inductances of proper magnitudes without stray capacitance cannot be built and also
these inductances would otherwise form oscillatory circuit with the inherent capacitance of the test
object and this may lead to inaccuracy in measurement and high voltages in the measuring circuit. The
height of a voltage divider depends upon the flash over voltage and this follows from the rated
maximum voltage applied.
Now, the potential distribution may not be uniform and hence the height also depends upon the design
of the high voltage electrode, the top electrode. For voltages in the megavolt range, the height of the
divider becomes large. As a thumb rule following clearances between top electrode and ground may
be assumed.
2.5 to 3 metres/MV for d.c. voltages.
2 to 2.5 m/MV for lightning impulse voltages.
More than 5 m/MV rms for a.c. voltages.
More than 4 m/MV for switching impulse voltage.
The divider dimensions are related to maximal applied voltage. The potential divider is most
simply represented by two impedances Z1 and Z2 connected in series and the sample voltage required
for measurement is taken from across Z2,

The voltage V2 is normally only a few hundred volts and hence the value of Z2 is so chosen that V2
across it gives sufficient deflection on a CRO. Therefore, most of the voltage drop is available across
the impedance Z1 and since the voltage to be measured is in megavolt the length of Z1 is large which
result in inaccurate measurements because of the stray capacitances associated with long length
voltage dividers (especially with impulse voltage measurements) unless special precautions are taken.
On the low voltage side of the potential dividers where a screened cable of finite length has to be
employed for connection to the oscillograph other errors and distortion of wave shape can also occur.

7.4 Resistive Dividers

The resistance potential dividers are the first to appear because of their simplicity of construction,
less space requirements, less weight and easy portability. These can be placed near the test object
which might not always be confined to one location.
The length of the divider depends upon two or three factors. The maximum voltage to be measured
is the first and if height is a limitation, the length can be based on a surface flash over gradient in the
order of 3–4 kV/cm irrespective of whether the resistance R1 is of liquid or wirewound construction.
The length also depends upon the resistance value but this is implicitly bound up with the stray
capacitance of the resistance column, the product of the two (RC) giving a time constant the value of
which must not exceed the duration of the wave front it is required to record.
It is to be noted with caution that the resistance of the potential divider should be matched to the
equivalent resistance of a given generator to obtain a given wave shape.
Capacitive Dividers

Capacitance potential dividers are more complex than the resistance type. For measurement of
impulse voltages not exceeding 1 MV capacitance dividers can be both portable and transportable. In
general, for measurement of 1 MV and over, the capacitance divider is a laboratory fixture. The
capacitance dividers are usually made of capacitor units mounted one above the other and bolted
together. It is this failure which makes the small dividers portable. A screening box similar to that
described earlier can be used for housing both the low voltage capacitor unit C2 and the matching
resistor if required. The low voltage capacitor C2 should be non-inductive. A form of capacitor which
has given excellent results is of mica and tin foil plate, construction, each foil having connecting tags
coming out at opposite corners. This ensures that the current cannot pass from the high voltage circuit
to the delay cable without actually going through the foil electrodes. It is also important that the
coupling between the high and low voltage arms of the divider be purely capacitive. Hence, the low
voltage arm should contain one capacitor only; two or more capacitors in parallel must be avoided
because of appreciable inductance that would thus be introduced. Further, the tappings to the delay
cable must be taken off as close as possible to the terminals of C2.
7.5 RC Voltage Divider
7.6 MEASUREMENT OF HIGH D.C., AND IMPULSE CURRENTS
High currents are used in power system for testing circuit breakers, cables lightning
arresters etc. and high currents are encountered during lightning discharges, switching
transients and shunt faults. These currents require special techniques for their
measurements.
7.6.1 High Direct Currents
Low resistance shunts are used for measurement of these currents. The voltage drop
across the shunt resistance is measured with the help of a milli-voltmeter. The value of
the resistance varies usually between 10 microohm and 13 milliohm. This depends upon
the heating effect and the loading permitted in the circuit. The voltage drop is limited to a
few millivolts usually less than 1 V. These resistances are oil immersed and are made as
three or four terminal resistances to provide separate terminals for voltage measurement
for better accuracy.
7.6.2 Hall Generators
Hall effect is used to measure very high direct current. Whenever electric current flows
through a metal plate placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to it, Lorenz force will
deflect the electrons in the metal structure in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
both the magnetic field and the flow of current. The charge displacement results in an
e.m.f. in the perpendicular direction called the Hall voltage. The Hall voltage is
proportional to the current I, the magnetic flux density B and inversely proportional to the
plate thickness d i.e.,VH = RBI/d
where R is the Hall coefficient which depends upon the material of the plate and
temperature of the plate. For metals the Hall coefficient is very small and hence
semiconductor materials are used for which the Hall coefficient is high.

Fig. Hall generator

140 HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
When large d.c. currents are to be measured the current carrying conductor is passed
through an iron cored magnetic circuit (Fig. (b)). The magnetic field intensity produced
by the conductor in the air gap at a depth d is given by H =1/(2πd)
The Hall element is placed in the air gap and a small constant d.c. current is passed
through the element. The voltage developed across the Hall element is measured and by
using the expression for Hall voltage the flux density B is calculated and hence the value
of current I is obtained.
7.6.3 High Power Frequency Currents
High Power frequency currents are normally measured using current transformers as use
of low resistance shunts involves unnecessary power loss. Besides, the current
transformers provide isolation from high voltage circuits and thus it is safer to work on
HV circuits Fig. below shows a scheme for current measurements using current
transformers and electro-optical technique.

Fig. Current transformers and electro-optical system for high a.c. current measurements
A voltage signal proportional to the current to be measured is produced and is transmitted
to the ground through the electro-optical device. Light pulses proportional to the voltage
signal are transmitted by a glass optical fibre bundle to a photodetector and converted
back into an analog voltage signal. The required power for the signal convertor and
optical device are obtained from suitable current and voltage transformers.

7.6.4 High Frequency and Impulse Currents

In power system the amplitude of currents may vary between a few amperes to a few
hundred kiloamperes and the rate of rise of currents can be as high as 1010A/sec and the
rise time can vary between a few micro seconds to a few macro seconds. Therefore, the
device to be used for measuring such currents should be capable of having a good
frequency response over a very wide frequency band. The methods normally employed
are—(i) resistive shunts; (ii) elements using induction effects; (iii) Faraday and Hall
effect devices. With these methods the accuracy of measurement varies between 1 to
10%. Fig. shows the circuit diagram of the most commonly used method for high impulse
current measurement. The voltage across the shunt resistance R due to impulse current
i(t) is fed to the oscilloscope through a delay cable D. The delay cable is terminated
through an impedance Z equal to the surge impedance of the cable to avoid reflection of
the voltage to be measured and thus true measurement of the voltage is obtained. Since
the dimension of the resistive element is large, it will have residual inductance L and
stray capacitance C. The inductance could be neglected at low frequencies but at higher
frequencies the inductive reactance would be comparable with the resistance of the shunt.
The effect of inductance and capacitance above 1 MHz usually should be considered. The
resistance values range between 10 micro ohm to a few milliohms and the voltage drop is
of the order of few volts. The resistive shunts used for measurements of impulse currents
of large duration is achieved only at considerable expense for thermal reasons. The
resistive shunts for impulse current of short duration can be built with rise time of a few
nano seconds of magnitude. The resistance element can be made of parallel carbon film
resistors or low inductance wire resistors of parallel resistance wires or resistance foils.

Assuming the stray capacitance to be negligibly small the voltage drop across the shunt in
complex frequency domain may be written as V(s) = I(s)[R + Ls]
It is to be noted that in order to have flat frequency response of the resistive element the
stray inductance and capacitance associated with the element must be made as small as
possible. In order to minimise the stray field effects following designs of the resistive
elements have been suggested and used
1. Bifilar flat strip shunt.
2. Co-axial tube or Park’s shunt
3. Co-axial squirrel cage shunt.
The bifilar flat strip shunts suffer from stray inductance associated with the resistance
element and its potential leads are linked to a small part of the magnetic flux generated by
the current that is being measured. In order to eliminate the problems associated with the
bifilar shunts, coaxial shunts were developed. Here the current enters the inner cylinder
of the shunt element and returns through an outer cylinder. The space between the two
cylinders is occupied by air which acts like a perfacts insulator. The voltage drop across
the element is measured between the potential pick up point and the outer case. The
frequency response of this element is almost a flat characteristic upto about 1000 MHz
and the response time is a few nanoseconds. The upper frequency limit is governed by the
skin effect in the sensitive element.

Fig. (i) Bifilar flat strip; (ii) Co-axial squirrel cage

Squirrel cage shunts are high ohmic shunts which can dissipate larger energies as
compared to coaxial shunts which are unsuitable due to their limitation of heat
dissipation, larger wall thickness and the skin effect. Squirrel cage shunt consists of thick
metallic rods or strips placed around the periphery of a cylinder and the structure
resembles the rotor construction of a double squirrel cage induction motor. The step
response of the element is peaky and, therefore, a compensating network is used in
conjunction with the element to improve its frequency response. Rise times less than 8 n
sec and band width of 400 MHz have been obtained with these shunts.

7.6.5 Elements using Induction Effects(Rogowski coil)

If the current to be measured is flowing through a conductor which is surrounded by a
coil as shown in Fig., and M is the mutual inductance between the coil and the conductor,
the voltage across the coil terminals will be: v(t) = M(di/dt)
Usually the coil is wound on a non-magnetic former in the form of a toroid and has a
large number of turns, to have sufficient voltage induced which could be recorded. The
coil is wound criss-cross to reduce the leakage inductance. If M is the number of turns of
the coil, A the coil area and lm its mean length, the mutual inductance is given by
M =μ0NA/lm
Usually an integrating circuit RC is employed as shown in Fig. to obtain the output
voltage proportional to the current to be measured. The output voltage is given by v0(t)
=Mi(t)/(RC)
Integration of v(t) can be carried out more elegantly by using an appropriately wired
operational amplifier. The frequency response of the Rogowski coil is flat upto 100 MHz
but beyond that it is affected by the stray electric and magnetic fields and also by the skin
effect.

Fig. Rogowski coil for high impulse current measurements

7.6.6 Magnetic Links
These are used for the measurement of peak magnitude of the current flowing in a
conductor. These links consist of a small number of short steel strips on high retentivity.
The link is mounted at a known distance from the current carrying conductor. It has been
found through experiments that the remanant magnetism of the link after impulse current
of 0.5/5 micro sec shape passes through the conductor is same as that caused by a direct
current of the same peak value. Measurement of the remanance possessed by the link
after the impulse current has passed through the conductor enables to calculate the peak
value of the current. For accurate measurements, it is usual to mount two or more links at
different distances from the same conductor. Because of its relative simplicity, the
method has been used for measurement of lightning current especially on transmission
towers.
It is to be noted that the magnetic links help in recording the peak value of the impulse
current but gives no information regarding the wave shape of the current. For this
purpose, an instrument called Fulcronograph has been developed which consists of an
aluminium wheel round the rim of which are slots containing magnetic links of sufficient
length to project on both sides of the wheel. As the wheel is rotated, the links pass
successively through a pair of narrow coils through which flows the current to be
measured. The current at the instant during which a particular link traverses the coil, can
be determined by a subsequent measurement of the residual flux in the link and,
therefore, a curve relating the variation of current with time can be obtained. The time
scale is governed by the speed of rotation of the wheel.

Hall Generators
The high amplitude a.c. and impulse currents can be measured by Hall Generator
described earlier. For the Hall Generator, though a constant control current flows which
is permeated by the magnetic field of the current to be measured, the Hall voltage is
directly proportional to the measuring current. This method became popular with the
development of semi-conductor with sufficient high value of Hall constant. The band
width of such devices is found to be about 50 MHz with suitable compensating devices
and feedback.

Possible End Semester Questions

[Link] the principle and construction of an electrostatic voltmeter for very high
voltages. What are its merits and demerits for high voltage AC. measurements ?
2. Explain the different methods of high current measurements with their relative merits
and demerits.
3. What are the requirements of an oscillograph for impulse and high frequency
measurements in high voltage test circuits ?
4. The H. V. arm of an R-C, divider has 15 numbers of 120 ohm resistors with a 20 pF
capacitor to ground from each of the junction points. The L.V. arm resistance is 5 ohms.
Determine the capacitance needed in the L.V. arm for correct compensation.