Chapter 18 – Body Fluids and Circulation (Ultimate Exam-Oriented

Notes)
Introduction
Every living organism needs a continuous supply of oxygen and
nutrients to survive, along with the removal of carbon dioxide and
other metabolic wastes. In humans and other vertebrates, this is
achieved by a well-developed transport system, consisting of body
fluids (blood and lymph) and a circulatory system, which together
ensure that every cell receives what it needs and wastes are
efficiently removed. Blood not only transports substances but also
plays roles in immunity, clotting, and maintaining homeostasis, while
the lymphatic system aids in fluid balance and defence against
pathogens.

Body Fluids
Blood
Blood is a specialized connective tissue and forms the major
circulating fluid in the human body. It consists of plasma and formed
elements, each of which has specific functions essential for life.
Plasma: Plasma is a pale yellow fluid, making up about 55% of total
blood volume. It is composed of 90–92% water, which acts as a
solvent, and 6–8% proteins. These proteins include fibrinogen, which
is crucial for blood clotting; globulins, which help in defence and
immunity; and albumins, which maintain osmotic balance between
blood and tissues. Plasma also contains ions like Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl⁻,
HCO₃⁻, nutrients like glucose and amino acids, lipids, hormones, and
waste products like urea and creatinine. Plasma is vital for
transporting these substances throughout the body.
Formed Elements: About 45% of blood volume is formed of cells and
cell fragments, which include red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells
(WBCs), and platelets.
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): RBCs are biconcave, anucleate cells,
numbering about 5–5.5 million/mm³ of blood. They are rich in
hemoglobin, an iron-containing pigment that binds oxygen in the
lungs and releases it to tissues, while also carrying some carbon
dioxide back to the lungs. RBCs have a lifespan of about 120 days,
after which they are broken down in the spleen, often called the
“graveyard of RBCs.”

White Blood Cells (Leucocytes): WBCs are nucleated, colorless cells,

numbering about 6000–8000/mm³ of blood. They are the body’s
defense system against infections. WBCs are divided into two main
groups: granulocytes and agranulocytes. Granulocytes include
neutrophils (60–65%), which are phagocytic and kill microbes;
eosinophils (2–3%), which are involved in allergic responses and
defense against parasites; and basophils (0.5–1%), which release
histamine and serotonin during inflammatory reactions.
Agranulocytes include lymphocytes (20–25%), which are further
classified as B and T cells responsible for antibody production and
cell-mediated immunity, and monocytes (6–8%), which are
phagocytic cells that engulf pathogens.

Platelets (Thrombocytes): Platelets are cell fragments derived from

megakaryocytes, with a count of 1.5–3.5 lakh/mm³. They play a
crucial role in blood clotting, preventing excessive blood loss after
injury.

Blood Groups:
Blood groups are classified based on the presence or absence of
antigens on RBC surfaces and antibodies in plasma:
ABO system (discovered by Landsteiner):
A: antigen A, antibody anti-B

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B: antigen B, antibody anti-A
AB: antigens A & B, no antibodies (universal recipient)
O: no antigens, antibodies anti-A & anti-B (universal donor)
Rh system: Based on the presence of Rh (D) antigen. Rh⁺ has antigen;
Rh⁻ does not. This is clinically important in pregnancy. If an Rh⁻
mother carries an Rh⁺ fetus, she may develop anti-Rh antibodies,
causing erythroblastosis fetalis in subsequent pregnancies.
Prevention involves giving anti-Rh antibodies to the mother after the
first delivery.
Coagulation of Blood:
Blood clotting is a vital process to prevent blood loss. When a blood
vessel is injured, thromboplastin is released, which in the presence of
Ca²⁺ ions converts prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin then
converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin, forming a mesh that
traps RBCs and platelets to form a clot. This cascade is called the
clotting cascade.

Lymph
Lymph is formed when a portion of plasma and proteins escape into
the intercellular spaces, forming tissue fluid, which then enters
lymphatic capillaries. Lymph is a colorless fluid that plays multiple
roles: it helps in exchange of nutrients and wastes between blood
and tissues, absorbs fats from the intestine via lacteals, and provides
immunity through lymphocytes present in lymph nodes.

Circulatory System
Human Heart
The heart is a muscular, four-chambered organ, located in the
thoracic cavity, slightly tilted to the left. It is protected by the
pericardium, a double-layered sac.

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Structure:
Right Atrium (RA): Receives deoxygenated blood from the superior
and inferior vena cava.
Right Ventricle (RV): Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via
pulmonary artery.
Left Atrium (LA): Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via
pulmonary veins.
Left Ventricle (LV): Pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the
aorta.
Valves:
Tricuspid: Between RA and RV
Bicuspid (Mitral): Between LA and LV
Semilunar valves: At the origins of pulmonary artery and aorta,
preventing backflow.

Double Circulation
Humans have double circulation, meaning blood passes through the
heart twice in a single cycle.
Pulmonary Circulation: RV → pulmonary artery → lungs →
oxygenated blood → LA
Systemic Circulation: LV → aorta → body → deoxygenated blood →
RA
This ensures complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood, allowing efficient oxygen supply to tissues.

Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in one heartbeat (~0.8
sec):

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Atrial systole (0.1 s): Atria contract, pushing blood into ventricles.
Ventricular systole (0.3 s): Ventricles contract, ejecting blood into the
pulmonary artery and aorta.
Joint diastole (0.4 s): Both atria and ventricles relax, chambers fill
with blood.
Heart rate: ~72 beats/min
Cardiac output: Stroke volume (~70 ml) × Heart rate (~72/min) ≈ 5
L/min

Regulation of Cardiac Activity

The heart beats automatically due to nodal tissue:
SA node: Pacemaker, initiates heartbeat
AV node: Relays impulse to ventricles
Bundle of His → Purkinje fibers: Spread impulses for ventricular
contraction
Heart rate is also influenced by:
Neural control: Sympathetic ↑ rate, Parasympathetic ↓ rate
Hormonal control: Adrenaline, noradrenaline ↑ rate

Electrocardiogram (ECG)
ECG records the electrical activity of the heart:
P-wave: Atrial depolarization
QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization
T-wave: Ventricular repolarization

Disorders of Circulatory System

Hypertension: Persistent high blood pressure (>140/90 mmHg)

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Coronary Artery Disease (Atherosclerosis): Narrowing of coronary
arteries due to fatty deposits
Angina: Chest pain from reduced oxygen supply
Heart Failure: Inability of heart to pump sufficient blood
Myocardial Infarction (Heart Attack): Death of heart tissue due to
blockage of coronary artery

Important Diagrams to Practice

Blood composition chart
ABO and Rh blood groups
Human heart (internal structure)
Double circulation pathway
ECG wave pattern

Quick Revision Keywords

Blood: Plasma, RBC (Hb, 120 days, spleen), WBC (granulocytes:
neutrophils/eosinophils/basophils; agranulocytes:
lymphocytes/monocytes), Platelets.
Blood groups: ABO, Rh, erythroblastosis fetalis.
Clotting: Prothrombin → Thrombin → Fibrinogen → Fibrin.
Lymph: Tissue fluid → lymph → immunity, fat transport.
Heart: 4 chambers, valves (tricuspid, bicuspid, semilunar).
Double circulation: Pulmonary + Systemic.
Cardiac cycle: Atrial systole, Ventricular systole, Joint diastole.
Regulation: SA node, AV node, Bundle of His, Purkinje fibers, neural
& hormonal control.
Disorders: Hypertension, CAD, Angina, Heart failure, MI.

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