📖 Chapter 8: Cell – The Unit of Life (Full Notes in Paragraph
Style)
Introduction
The cell is the fundamental unit of life. It is the smallest
structure that can perform all the functions necessary for
living. In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered the cell while
examining thin slices of cork under a microscope. The cells
he saw were dead and appeared like small compartments.
Later, Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe
living cells such as bacteria and protozoa. The nucleus was
discovered by Robert Brown in 1831, and in 1839, Purkinje
coined the term protoplasm to describe the fluid content
inside the cell.
The cell theory was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann.
Schleiden, a German botanist, stated that all plants are
made up of cells, while Schwann, a zoologist, explained that
animals too are made up of cells. Together, they suggested
that the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all
living beings. Later, in 1855, Rudolf Virchow added a very
important point: Omnis cellula e cellula, which means all
cells arise from pre-existing cells. The modern version of cell
theory now also includes that cells contain hereditary
information, and that all vital functions of an organism take
place within cells.
Types of Organisms Based on Cells
Living organisms can be unicellular or multicellular.
Unicellular organisms, like Amoeba, Paramecium,
Chlamydomonas, and bacteria, are made of only one cell
that performs all life processes such as movement,
nutrition, and reproduction. Multicellular organisms, on the
other hand, are made of many cells. In them, different
groups of cells perform specialized functions, leading to
division of labour. Examples include plants, animals, and
human beings.
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
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Cells are broadly divided into two types: prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells do not have a true nucleus;
instead, they contain genetic material in a region called the
nucleoid. Their DNA is circular and not associated with
proteins called histones. They also lack membrane-bound
organelles. Examples of prokaryotes include bacteria,
cyanobacteria, and mycoplasma. In contrast, eukaryotic
cells have a true nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane.
Their DNA is linear and combined with histone proteins to
form chromatin. They also contain membrane-bound
organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
and chloroplasts. Examples of eukaryotes include plants,
animals, fungi, and protists.
It is interesting to note that mycoplasma is the smallest cell
known, measuring only about 0.1 micrometers, while the
ostrich egg is considered the largest single cell.
Shape and Size of Cells
Cells exist in different shapes and sizes depending on the
functions they perform. Nerve cells are long and branched
so that they can transmit nerve impulses over long
distances. Red blood cells are small, round, and biconcave,
which allows them to transport oxygen efficiently. Muscle
cells are elongated and help in contraction. In general, cell
sizes range from 1 to 100 micrometers, although there are
exceptions like mycoplasma and the ostrich egg.
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Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell
A typical bacterial cell, which is prokaryotic, has several
important components.
1. Cell Envelope: It is a protective covering made up of
three layers. The outermost is the glycocalyx, which
may be thick and form a capsule or thin and form a
slime layer. This provides protection against
desiccation and helps the bacteria attach to surfaces.
The second layer is the cell wall, which is rigid and
gives shape to the cell. It is mainly made up of
peptidoglycan. The innermost layer is the plasma
membrane, which is selectively permeable and
regulates the entry and exit of substances. Together,
these three layers form the cell envelope.
2. Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell lacks
membrane-bound organelles. However, ribosomes are
present. These are of the 70S type, made up of two
subunits, 50S and 30S.
3. Nucleoid: Prokaryotes do not have a true nucleus.
Instead, their DNA is present as a single circular
molecule in a region called the nucleoid.
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4. Plasmids: Many bacteria contain extra-chromosomal
DNA called plasmids. These often carry genes that
provide special advantages, such as resistance to
antibiotics.
5. Inclusions: Various storage materials like glycogen
granules and phosphate granules are found in the
cytoplasm.
6. Locomotory Structures: Some bacteria have flagella for
movement, while fimbriae and pili are used for
attachment and transfer of genetic material.
Structure of a Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic cells are more complex and contain many
membrane-bound organelles.
Cell Membrane : The cell membrane, also called the plasma
membrane, is described by the Fluid Mosaic Model
proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972. According to this
model, the membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer
in which proteins are embedded. The heads of the
phospholipids are hydrophilic and face outward, while the
tails are hydrophobic and face inward. Proteins may be
peripheral (on the surface) or integral (spanning across the
membrane).
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The cell membrane is selectively permeable and regulates
the movement of substances. Substances can cross the
membrane by passive transport such as diffusion, osmosis,
and facilitated diffusion, or by active transport, which
requires energy. The membrane also allows endocytosis,
where the cell engulfs particles (phagocytosis for solids and
pinocytosis for liquids), and exocytosis, where waste
materials are expelled.
Cell Wall
Plant cells and fungi have a cell wall in addition to the
plasma membrane. In plants, the cell wall is mainly made
up of cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. In fungi, it is
made of chitin. The wall provides shape, support, and
protection. Between plant cells, a middle lamella made of
calcium pectate holds the cells together.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a semi-fluid substance that fills the space
between the nucleus and the plasma membrane. It contains
enzymes, dissolved substances, and various organelles.
Many important biochemical reactions occur in the
cytoplasm, such as glycolysis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
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The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes. It is
of two types: Rough ER and Smooth ER. Rough ER has
ribosomes attached to its surface and is involved in the
synthesis of proteins. Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is
responsible for lipid synthesis, detoxification of drugs, and
storage of calcium ions.
Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus, discovered by Camillo Golgi, consists
of flattened sacs called cisternae. Its main functions are
packaging, modification, and transport of proteins and
lipids. It also forms lysosomes and is involved in secretion.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles containing
digestive enzymes. They break down waste materials,
damaged cell parts, and invading microbes. Because they
can digest their own cell if damaged, they are also called
“suicidal bags.”
Vacuoles
Vacuoles are storage sacs. In plant cells, a large central
vacuole is filled with cell sap, which stores water, sugars,
ions, and pigments. In animal cells, vacuoles are usually
smaller. Contractile vacuoles in unicellular organisms such
as Amoeba help in osmoregulation.
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Ribosomes
Ribosomes are non-membrane bound structures that carry
out protein synthesis. In eukaryotic cytoplasm, ribosomes
are of the 80S type, whereas in mitochondria and
chloroplasts, 70S ribosomes are present.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are known as the “powerhouse of the cell”
because they produce energy in the form of ATP. They are
double-membrane organelles. The outer membrane is
smooth, while the inner membrane is folded into cristae
that contain enzymes for respiration. The inner fluid-filled
area is called the matrix, which contains DNA, ribosomes,
and enzymes. Mitochondria are semi-autonomous and can
produce some of their own proteins.
Plastids
Plastids are found in plant cells and are of three main types:
chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and leucoplasts. Chloroplasts
contain the green pigment chlorophyll and are the site of
photosynthesis. Chromoplasts contain coloured pigments
such as carotenoids and xanthophylls, which give red,
yellow, and orange colours to fruits and flowers.
Leucoplasts are colourless and store food. Amyloplasts
store starch, elaioplasts store oils, and aleuroplasts store
proteins.
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A chloroplast has a double membrane, and inside, it has
fluid called stroma. The stroma contains enzymes, DNA,
ribosomes, and small structures called thylakoids.
Thylakoids are stacked to form grana, and the chlorophyll
pigments required for photosynthesis are present in their
membranes.
Centrosome and Centrioles
Animal cells contain a centrosome, which has two centrioles
arranged at right angles. During cell division, centrioles help
in organizing the spindle fibres.
Cilia and Flagella
Cilia and flagella are extensions of the plasma membrane.
They have a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules. Cilia are
short and numerous, while flagella are longer and fewer.
Both are used for movement.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments such as
microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
It provides mechanical support, helps maintain cell shape,
and assists in intracellular transport and movement.
Nucleus
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The nucleus is the control centre of the cell. It is surrounded
by a double nuclear envelope that contains pores for
exchange of materials. The nucleoplasm inside contains
chromatin, which is made of DNA and proteins. Chromatin
can be euchromatin (loosely packed, transcriptionally
active) or heterochromatin (densely packed, inactive). The
nucleolus is also present inside the nucleus and is
responsible for synthesis of ribosomal RNA and assembly of
ribosome subunits.
Differences Between Plant and Animal Cells
Plant cells differ from animal cells in some ways. Plant cells
have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, while animal cells
lack a cell wall. Plant cells contain plastids such as
chloroplasts, whereas animal cells do not. Plant cells usually
have a large central vacuole, while animal cells have smaller
vacuoles. Centrioles are absent in most plant cells but
present in animal cells. Plant cells store starch as a reserve
food, whereas animal cells store glycogen.
Important Diagrams For this chapter, the important diagrams to
practice are:
1. Structure of a bacterial (prokaryotic) cell. Fluid Mosaic Model
of the plasma membrane. Structure of mitochondria.
Structure of chloroplast. Generalized animal cell and plant
cell. Structure of nucleus.
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