ENGINEERING PHYSICS HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

UNIT II WAVE OPTICS

Introduction:
Optics is a branch of physics which deals with the “Theory of light and its propagation
in a given medium”. The branch of optics is divided into two parts

1. Ray or Geometrical optics and

2. Physical or Wave optics

Ray optics: Ray optics deals with image formation by optical systems. It was supported by
Newton’s corpuscular theory. It deals with the particles propagating in a medium called “light-
photons with energy En = nhυ in a medium”

Physical optics: Physical optics deals with nature of light. Huygens proposed the wave
theory of light. According to this, a luminous body is a source of disturbance in a hypothetical
medium called “ether”

HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE
Huygens principle provides a geometrical method of finding the shape and position of the
wave front at a certain instant from its shape and position of some earlier instant.
Huygen’s principle is stated in the following two
parts.
i. Each point on the wave front acts as a centre
of new disturbance and emits its own set of
spherical waves called secondary wavelets.
These secondary wavelets travel in all
directions with the velocity of light so long as
they move in the same medium.

ii. The envelope or the locus of these wavelets in

the forward direction gives the position of the
new wavefront at any subsequent times.

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Superposition Principle: According to superposition principle “The resultant or total

displacement of the medium acted upon by two or more waves simultaneously equal to sum or
difference of displacements of individual waves”.

R or Y  y1  y2            yn

Interference of light:
It is defined as “Modification of Resultant Intensity of
light obtained by the superposition of two or more light waves”.
This theory of interference of light was developed by Thomas
young in his experimental study of light. The resultant intensity
consists of series of bright & dark fringes that appear on the
screen which are known as interference pattern or interference
fringes which correspond to maximum & minimum intensities of light.

Interference pattern may be either straight or circular or parabolic (Arc) fringes

Coherent Sources:If the phase difference between two light waves emitted from two
sources is zero or has a constant value then the sources are said to be coherent.

Incoherent- sources:If the phase difference between two light waves coming from two
sources changes with time, the sources are called as “In-coherent Sources”.

Types of interference:Interference of light based upon young’s double slit experiment is

divided into two types.

1. Constructive interference
2. Destructive interference

Constructive interference:When the two light waves reach a point in phase the resultant
displacement (RMax or YMax) is always equal to algebraic sum of individual displacements of
the light waves. It is known as constructive interference.

RMax or YMax  y1  y2   yn

Destructive interference: When the two light waves reach a point i.e. out of phase. The
resultant displacement (RMin or YMin) is always equal to the difference of displacements of the
light waves. It is known as destructive interference.

RMin or YMin  y1  y2  yn

Conditions for interference of light:

1) The two light sources emitting light waves should be coherent.
2) The separation between the two sources should be small.
3) The distance between the two sources and the screen should be large.

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4) To view interference fringes, the back-ground (good-contrast) should be dark.

5) Amplitudes of two light waves are nearly equal.
6) The source should be mono-chromatic.
7) The sources should be narrow i.e. they must be small.

Interference in thin films due to reflected light:

When light is incident on a (plane parallel) thin film,
some portion gets reflected from the upper surface and the
remaining portion is transmitted into the film. Again, some
portion of the transmitted light is reflected back into the film by
lower surface and emerges through the upper surface. These
reflected light beams superimpose with each other, producing
interference and forming interference patterns.

Consider a thin film of thickness‘t’ and refractive index µ. Let a monochromatic light
ray AB be incident at an angle of incidence of ‘i’ on the upper surface of the film. BE and BC
are the reflected and transmitted light rays. Let the angle of refraction is ‘r’. The ray BC will be
reflected into the film and emerge through the film in the form of the light ray DF.

These two light rays superimpose depending upon pathdifference between them
producing interference patterns. To know the pathdifference, let us draw the normal DG to BE.
From D and G onwards, the light rays travel equal distances. By the time the light ray travels
from B to G, the transmitted light ray has to travel from B to C and C to D.

The pathdifference between light rays (1) and (2) is

∆ = μ (BC+CD) (in film) –BG (in air) -------- (1)

HC t
From triangle BCH, BC  
cos r cos r

HC t
∴ BC  
cos r cos r

HC
From triangle DCH, cos r 
CD

t
 cos r 
CD

t
CD 
cos r

t
BC  CD 
cos r

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2t
 ( BC  CD)  -------- (2)
cos r

To calculate BG, BD=BH+HD

BH BH
Triangle BHC, tan r  
CH t

∴ BH  t tanr

Similarly HD  t tanr

BD  BH HD  2t tanr (∵ BH=HD)

BG
From triangle BGD, sin i 
BD

 BG  BD sin i

∴ BG  2t tan r sin i

sin i
From Snell’s law, 
sin r

sin i   sin r

BG  2t tan r sin r

Substituting the above values in equation-(1)

 2t 
pathdifference      2 t (tan r ) sin r
 cos r 

2t

cos r
1  sin 2r 

2t

cos r
 cos 2 r 

pathdifference  2t cos r

In the above case, the ray BE is reflected at the surface of a denser medium and hence it
𝜆
suffers an additional pathdifference equal to 2.

The ray BC suffers reflection at C, at the surface of a rarer medium and hence on
emerging out at D, it suffers no additional path change.

Hence the net pathdifference between the two reflected rays DF and BE

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
Total pathdifference  2 t cos r 
2

When the pathdifference is an integral multiple of λ then the rays (1) and (2) will be in
phase and appear as constructive interference.


i.e., 2  t cos r   n (Condition for the bright fringe)
2


2 t cos r  n 
2


2  t cos r  (2n  1) where n=0, 1, 2……….
2

When the pathdifference is half integral multiple of λ, the rays (1) and (2) meet in out
of phase and undergo destructive interference.

 
i.e., 2  t cos r   (2n  1) (Condition for the dark fringe)
2 2

 
2  t cos r  (2n  1) 
2 2

2t cos r  n where n=0, 1, 2……….

Depending on the conditions the interference pattern consists of bright and dark fringes.

Newton’s Rings:

Newton’s rings are one of the best examples for the interference in a non uniform thin
film. When a plano convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate, an air
film of increasing thickness is formed between the two. The thickness of the film at the point
of contact is zero.

If monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally and the film is viewed in the
reflected light, alternate dark and bright rings concentric around
the point of contact between the lens and glass plate are seen.
These circular rings were discovered by Newton and are called
as Newton’s rings.

The plano-convex lens (L) of large radius of curvature is

placed with its convex surface on a plane glass plate (P). The
lens makes the contact with the plate at ‘O’. The
monochromatic light falls on a glass plate G held at an angle of
450 with the vertical. The glass plate G reflects normally a part
of the incident light towards the air film enclosed by the lens L
and the glass plate P. A part of the light is reflected by the

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curved surface of the lens L and a part is transmitted which is reflected back from the plane
surface of the plate. These reflected rays interfere and give rise to an interference pattern in the
form of circular rings. These rings are seen near the upper surface of the air film through the
microscope.

Explanation:

Newton’s rings are formed due to interference between the light rays reflected from the
top and bottom surfaces of air film between the plate and the lens. A part of the incident light is
reflected at a point in the form of the ray (1) with any additional phase change. The other part
is refracted and again reflected in the form of the ray (2) with additional phase change of π or
path change of λ/2.

As the rings are observed in the reflected light,

the path difference between the rays is


pathdiffernce  2 t cos r 
2

For air film μ = 1 and for normal incidence r = 0,


then, pathdifference  2t 
2

At the point of contact t =0 the path difference is λ/2, i.e., the reflected light at the point
of contact suffers phase change of π. Then the incident and reflected rays are out of phase and
interface destructively. Hence the central spot is dark.


The condition for the bright ring is 2t   n
2


2t  (2n  1) where n=1, 2, 3…..
2

 
The condition for dark ring is 2t   (2n  1)
2 2

2t  n where n=0, 1, 2, 3……

Theory:

To find the diameters of dark and bright rings, let ‘L’ be the
lens placed on a glass plate P. The convex surface of the lens is the
part of spherical surface with centre at ‘C’. Let R be the radius of

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curvature and r be the radius of Newton’s ring corresponding to the film thickness‘t’.

From the property of a circle,

NA NB  NO  ND

r  r  t   2R  t 

r 2  2 Rt  t 2

where R is the radius of curvature of plano lens and‘t’ is the maximum thickness of air film

As ‘t’ is small, r2 will be negligible, r 2  2 Rt

r2
t
2R


Condition for bright ring is, 2t   2n  1
2

r2 
2   2n  1
2R 2

r2 
 2n  1  R
2

Replacing r by D/2 the diameter of nth bright ring will be

Dn 2 (2n  1)

4R 2

∴ D odd natural number (for bright ring)

D natural number (for dark ring)

Thus, the diameters of dark rings are proportional to the square root of natural numbers
and diameters of bright rings are proportional to odd natural numbers.

Determination of wavelength of a light source:

Let R be the radius of curvature of a Plano
convex lens, λ be the wavelength of light used. Let
Dmand Dn are the diameters of mth and nth dark rings
are respectively.

Dm 2  4m R

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Dn 2  4n R

Dm 2  Dn 2  4(m  n) R

Dm 2  Dn 2

4(m  n) R

Dm 2  Dn 2
R
4(m  n)

AB Dm 2  Dn 2
From the graph, 
CD (m  n)

The radius R of the Plano convex lens can be obtained with the help of a spherometer. λ
can be calculated by substituting all the above values.

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
Construction:
 It consists of two excellent optically plane, highly polished plane mirrors M1 and M2
which are at right angle to each other. There are two optically flat glass plates G 1 and
G2 of same thickness and of the same material placed parallel to each other. These
plates are inclined at an angle 450 with the mirrors M1 and M2. T is a telescope which
receives the reflected light from mirrors M1 and M2.

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Working:
 Monochromatic light from source S after being rendered parallel by a collimating lens
L fallson the semi silvered glass plate G1.
 It is divided into two parts, the reflected ray travels towards mirror M1 and the
transmitted ray travels towards mirror M2 .
 The two rays fall normally on mirrors M1 and M2 respectively and are reflected back
along their original paths.
 The reflected ray again meets at the semi silvered surface of G1 and enters a short focus
telescope T.
 The two rays entering the telescope are originally derived from the same single beam,
hence they are in a position to produce interference fringes in the field of view of the
telescope.
 A desired path difference can be introduced between the two reflected rays by moving
the mirror M1.
 It can be noted from figure that the reflected ray passes through G 1 twice where as the
transmitted ray does not do so even once.
 Thus in the absence of glass plate G2 the two paths are not equal.
 To equalise the two paths, glass plate G2 of same thickness and material as that of G1 is
introduced in the path of transmitted ray.
 Because of this nature, the glass plate G2 is called compensating plate.
 The interference fringes may be straight, circular, parabolic etc depending upon path
difference and angle between mirrors.
Uses of Michelson’s interferometer:
Michelson’s interferometer has been used for a variety of purposes for example
1. In the determination of wavelength of monochromatic source of light.
2. To determine the difference between the two neighbouring wavelengths or resolution of
the spectral lines.
3. In the determination of refractive index and thickness of various thin transparent
materials.

DIFFRACTION:

Introduction:

The bending of light around the edges of an

obstacle is called diffraction. It was first observed by
Gremaldy.

When light falls on an obstacle then the

corresponding geometrical shadow on the screen
should be completely dark. Practically the geometrical shadow consists of bright and dark
fringes. These fringes are due to the superposition of bended light waves around the corners of

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an obstacle. The amount of bending depends upon the size of an obstacle and wavelength of
light.

When light falls on an obstacle whose size is comparable with the wavelength of light
then light bends around the edges or corners of an obstacle and enters into the geometrical
shadow. This bending of light is known as diffraction.

Types of Diffraction:

The diffraction phenomena are broadly classified into two types.

1. Fresnel’s Diffraction:

In this type of diffraction, the source of light and the screen are placed at finite distance.
In this, lenses are not necessary to study the diffraction. This diffraction can be studied in the
direction of propagation of light. The incident wave fronts are either spherical or cylindrical.

2. Fraunhofer’s Diffraction:

In this type of diffraction, the source and screen are placed at infinite distances. Here
we need lenses to study the diffraction. This diffraction can be studied in any direction. In this,
the incident wavefront is plane.

Difference between Fresnel diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction:

S. No. Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction

1 Source and screen are placed at finite Source and screen are at placed at infinite
distances. distances.

2 No lenses are used. Lenses are used.

3. The incident wave front is spherical The incident wave front is plane wave front.
or cylindrical.

4. The diffraction can be studied in the The diffraction can be studied in any of
direction of propagation of light. propagation of light.

Fraunhofer’s diffraction at single slit:

Consider a slit AB of width ‘e’. Let a plane wavefront WW’ of monochromatic light of
wavelength λ propagating normally towards the slit is incident on it. The diffracted light

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through the slit be focused by means of a convex lens on a screen placed in the focal plane of
the lens.

According to Huygens-Fresnel, every point on the wavefront in the plane of the slit is a
source of secondary wavelets, which spread out to the right in all directions. These wavelets
travelling normal to the slit i.e., along the direction OPo are brought to focus at Po by the lens.
Thus, Po is a bright central image.

The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle θ with the normal are focused at a point
P1 on the screen. Depending on the path difference, the point P1may have maximum or
minimum intensities. In order to find out intensity at P 1, let us draw a parallel AC from A to the
light ray at B.

The path difference between secondary wavelets from A and B in direction θ, is given
by

  BC  AB sin   e sin 

The relationship between phase difference and path difference is given by

2
Phase difference   pathdifference


2
  e sin 


Let the width of the slit is divided into ‘n’ equal parts and the amplitude of the wave
from each part is ‘a’. Then the phase difference between any two successive waves is

1 1 2
Total phase   ( esin )  d  say 
n n 

Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes the resultant amplitude R is given by

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 nd    e sin  
a Sin   a sin  
R  2    
d    e sin  
sin   sin  
2  n 

a sin   e sin 
 Where  
 n
sin  

sin    
a
 
is very small 
n 
n

na sin 



A sin 
Let na = A, R


Resultant intensity (I) is proportional to square of amplitude (R). Therefore, the

intensity is given by

 sin  
2

I  R 2  A2  
  

Intensity distribution:

The diffraction pattern consists of central principal

maximum for α=0. There are subsidiary or secondary maxima of
decreasing intensity on either sides of it at positions 𝛼 =
3𝜋 5𝜋
± ,± . Between secondary maxima, there are minima at
2 2
positions 𝛼 = ±𝜋, ±2𝜋.

Diffraction grating:
Diffraction grating is closed placed multiple slits. It
consists of very large number of narrow slits side by side
separated by opaque spaces. The incident light is transmitted
through the slits and blocked by opaque spaces. Such a
grating is called transmission grating.

When light passes through the grating, each one of

the slit diffracts the waves. All the diffracted waves combine
one another producing sharp and intense maxima on the screen.

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A plane transmission grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque

lines are made with a diamond point. The space between the rulings is equal and transparent
and consists of parallel slits. The combined width of a ruling and a slit is called grating
element.

Let ‘e’ be the width of the line and‘d’ be the width of the slit. Then (e + d) is known as
grating element. If ‘N’ is the no. of lines per inch on the grating then

N  e  d   1"  2.54cm

2.54
ed  cm
N

When light falls on the grating, the light gets diffracted through each slit. As a result,
both diffraction and interference of diffracted light gets enhanced and forms a diffraction
pattern. This pattern is known as diffraction spectrum.

Grating spectrum:
The condition to form the principal maxima in a grating is given by

 e  d  sin   n is called grating equation.

where (e + d) is the grating element and n=1, 2, …...

Instead of monochromatic source of light such as sodium vapour lamp, if white light
source such as mercury is used then each diffracted order will have different colours at
different angles.

For n=1

 e  d  sin v  v ( for violet ray)

 e  d  sin r  r ( for red ray)

Thus in the spectrum for a grating, there is no

overlapping or mixing of colours unlike the spectrum
for a prism where different colours overlap. For a
grating the angle of diffraction (i.e., angular
dispersion) depends on λ and (e + d). Hence if two
different gratings of same (e + d) values are chosen,
they will produce same dispersion and hence they will be identical.

Maximum no. of orders available with a grating:

The principal maxima in a grating
 e  d  sin   n

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1
N
ed
Hence r1  r2 , 0  e
For θ=900, the maximum possible value of sinθ is 1.
1
nN   1 or n 
N
This gives the maximum number of orders possible and n is a integer.

Resolving power of a grating:

The resolving power of a grating represents its ability to form separate spectral lines for
𝜆
wavelengths very close together. It is measured by 𝑑𝜆
, where d𝜆 is the smallest wavelength
difference that can just be resolved at wavelength 𝜆.
Analysis:

Let a parallel beam of light of two wavelengths 𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆 be incident normally on the
grating .If the nth principal maximum of 𝜆 is formed in the direction 𝜃𝑛 ,we will have (e +
d) sin θn = nλ where (e+d) is the grating element.

Now the grating equation for the minima is 𝑁(𝑒 + 𝑑 )𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 where N is the total number
of rulings on the grating and m can take all integral values except 0,N,2N,…Nn, because these
values of m give respective principal [Link] is clear from figure that the first minimum of 𝜆
adjacent to nth principal maximum of (𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) in the direction of increasing 𝜃 will be obtained
for m= Nn+[Link], for this minimum we have

𝑁(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛) = (𝑛𝑁 + 1)𝜆

𝑛𝑁 + 1
(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃𝑛) = ( )𝜆
𝑁
According to Rayleigh criterion, the wavelengths λ and λ+dλ are just resolved by the grating
when the nth maximum of λ+dλ is also obtained in direction θn+dθn i.e
(e+d)sin(θn + d θn)=n(λ+dλ)………..(4)
Figure shows the overlapping of principal maxima of two patterns
Comparing eqs (3) and(4), we get
𝑛𝑁+1
( 𝑁
) 𝜆 = n(λ+dλ)
nNλ+λ = nNλ+nNdλ
𝜆⁄ = 𝑛𝑁
𝑑𝜆
𝜆
But (𝑑𝜆 ) is the resolving power R of the grating. Therefore ,
R=nN
𝑁(𝑒+𝑑) sin 𝜃𝑛
R= 𝜆
As expected, the resolving power is zero for the central principal maximum(n=0), all
wavelengths being indiffracted in this order.

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