Organisation of the Organism

The Cell which is the hereditary material present on

chromosomes.
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit *Note: when a zygote (the first cell of life) is
of life or in living organisms. It cannot be formed, it contains each and every gene
broken down into any simpler unit even though (about 30 – 40,000). Thus, when cell division
it contains of cell organelles. It carries out takes place, each and every gene is present in
all cells, but in the human body, for example
living functions and tasks. It is very small
insulin, is only produced in the pancreas
(microscopic) and can be viewed under a
because that is where it is produced, but the
microscope. DNA (carries coded instructions for controlling
the activities and characteristics of the cell) in
Animal Cells all cells will have the coded instruction to
produce insulin.

Cytoplasm: It is the fluid present between the

nucleus and the cell membrane; Contains
water and dissolved substances such as
sugars and salts; Organelles such as
mitochondria (which produces energy –
powerhouse of the cell) and ribosomes
(produces proteins) are present in the
cytoplasm.

Cell Membrane: It surrounds the cytoplasm;

Controls the entry and exit of dissolved
substances; It is partially permeable or
semi-permeable as it only allows small
Plant Cells particles and not large molecules of useful
substances and nutrients; Protects other cell
organelles and doesn’t allow the cell to burst;
Gives the cell shape.

*The above 3 organelles are common to plant

and animal cells.

Organelles Particularly in Animal Cells

Secretory Vesicles: Contains cell products

such as hormones and enzymes; They
secrete (remove useful substances from them
to the body – different term than excrete) and
store these cell products; Safely transport
*Note that animal cells don’t have a fixed substances from one part of the cell to
shape, but plant cells have a more similar another.
fixed shape compared to similar cells.
Temporary Vacuole: This is small and
temporary; Stores water and other
Functions of Cell Organelles substances; Not the same as the sap vacuole.

Nucleus: Contains genetic material in Glycogen: Storage form of carbohydrates;

chromosomes which control how cells grow Present in liver or muscle cells only; Used for
and work; Controls cell division (this is where providing energy to the body when there is a
the threads of chromatin fibre become stiff shortage of glucose.
structures called chromosomes); There are
46 chromosomes in a common human cell Plant Tissues and Cells
(except sperm and egg – 23 each); They
aren’t present in Red Blood Cells and
prokaryotes; Chromosomes made of DNA
When studying a plant cell, one mostly studies The vacuole pushes the nucleus to the side
a palisade mesophyll cell from the mesophyll in plant cells, whereas the nucleus is usually
layer of the leaf tissue. in the centre of animal cells.
Leaf Organelles Plant cells are green due to the chlorophyll
Cellulose Cell Wall: Made out of cellulose, pigment in the chloroplasts
the cell wall gives rigidity and support to the
cell; it gives a fixed shape to the cell; freely
permeable – will allow large molecules also to
enter.

Sap or Large Vacuole: The vacuole is

permanent and large in the plant cell as it
stores water that also keeps the cell rigid as ▲ Other than these specific organelles, animal
plants have no backbone or exoskeleton for cells do have secretory vesicles, glycogen and
support; may store ions and molecules (these a small and temporary vacuole.
mixed with water are called the cell sap); if the
vacuole is full of water, the cell will be tight or Other Organelles
turgid; if it loses water it becomes lose or The cytoplasm of all cells contains structures
flaccid. Osmosis makes sure that the vacuole such as ribosomes on rough endoplasmic
become turgid once again. reticulum and vesicles. These can only be
seen under an electron microscope.
Chloroplasts: They contain a pigment called
chlorophyll which is green and gives the leaf Almost all cells, except prokaryotes, have
its colour and absorbs light for photosynthesis mitochondria and rough endoplasmic
and contains enzymes which help in the same reticulum.
process; starch is the insoluble stored form of
carbohydrates which is produced from the Ribosomes are responsible for protein
glucose produced in photosynthesis. synthesis in cells and they lie on top of rough
structures called endoplasmic reticulum and
Similarities and Differences in Plant and thus they are known as rough endoplasmic
Animal Cells reticulum. Aerobic respiration takes place in
mitochondria. Cells with high rates of
Similarities metabolism require large numbers of
mitochondria to provide sufficient energy.
Have a cell membrane, cytoplasm and a
nucleus which has chromosomes, The rough line like structures below the
containing DNA material, containing genes. ribosomes are the rough endoplasmic
Stores carbohydrates in an insoluble form. reticulum.

Differences

Plants store carbohydrates as starch,

whereas animals store it as glycogen.
Plants are autotrophic and animals are
heterotrophic, resulting in some
differences.
Plant cells have a cellulose cell wall to give
support and rigidity and shape to the cell Organisation of the Organism
and a vacuole storing water also giving
support as plants have no backbone or
exoskeleton.
Plant cells are larger in size due to the large
vacuole and have a fixed or regular shape,
whereas animal cells are smaller and have
an irregular shape.
 Muscle Cell: Proteins build up muscles;
muscle cells contain many protein fibres in
their cytoplasm which grow bigger or build up
when more protein is consumed in the diet;
contracts when doing work and relaxes;
contracts so as to bring structures together;
bones and muscles are always present
together (interdependent) and they are
connected by structures called tendons
(inelastic structures, unlike muscle cells);
when muscles aren’t used, they shrink as the
proteins leave the cells making them smaller;
A few more examples of the organisation: when muscles contract, they may pull the
tendon up, which allows the entire bone to
move up; muscles usually work in pairs called
antagonistic pairs (muscles that do opposing
actions) (biceps – flexor muscles and
triceps – extensor muscle are one such pair.
When a bicep contracts, the hand will bend
and the tricep will be relaxed and visa versa as
the hand extends).

Ciliated Cells (also known as ciliated

epithelial cell): Have cilia present (hair like
structures present in the trachea (wind pipe)
which constantly move upwards (lashing
Specialized Cells motion) to stop dust and microorganisms
trapped on mucus from entering the lungs);
Large organisms are multicellular and have goblet cells are present between a few
many different types of cells, each specialized ciliated cells to produce mucus (present even
for a particular function. Each of these cells in stomach, intestine lining and nose); ciliated
have a different structure which is suitable to cells makes sure mucus doesn’t go down the
perform its specialized task. wind pipe due to gravity; cough and sneezing
clears out the extra mucus.
Red Blood Cell (RBC): Transports oxygen
from lungs to tissues and back; has a red Nerve Cell / Neuron: Bundles of such cells
pigment called haemoglobin, which carries connect together to form nerves; these nerves
the oxygen (iron is required for the production are deep inside the skin as when these cells
of haemoglobin – if there is less iron in the are damaged they cannot be repaired, thus
diet, lesser haemoglobin, lesser oxygen making it difficult to be damaged easily; this
carries, lesser respiration, lesser energy – cell damage can lead to paralysis (if the nerve
deficiency disease known as anaemia); has cell on the bottom of the spinal chord is
no nucleus so that it can carry more damaged severely, the parts of the body below
haemoglobin, thus having more space for it or connected to the damaged nerve will not
oxygen; flexible so that it can fit through the function); conducts nerve impulses in the form
narrowest blood vessels – capillaries; of electricity; have a long structure called the
exchanges carbon dioxide and oxygen through axon which allows these impulses to transfer
diffusion (the net movement of particles and a body structure called the cyton or cell
from a region of their higher concentration to body which receives these impulses; has a
a region of their lower concentration); has a fatty or myelin sheath to provide insulation of
biconcave shape formed as it has no nucleus electric impulses and has many branched
which gives the cell a larger surface area so endings which connect to other nerves; one
that diffusion can occur easily.
neuron can be very long and connect from a no chloroplasts; absorbs materials from soil
fingertip to the backbone. water.

Reproductive Cells:

Root Hair
Cell: Have
an
extension
called a
root hair
which has Xylem Vessel: present in the stem of a
an plant; transports water and minerals
increased upwards to the rest of the plant from the
surface roots; supports the plant (has lignin and
area for cellulose cell wall for more support); thick wall
more absorption of water and mineral ions; stiffened and strengthened with this lignin
have a large vacuole for more water storage; (gives rigidity); no end-walls or end to end
placement between cells to form a continuous Animal Tissues
tube; involved in the ascent of sap (upward
flow of water and minerals); no cytoplasm, Epithelium: Outer tissue; lines tubes such as
nucleus and other organelles (dead – lignin the gut (stomach + intestines); also covers
mostly in dead cells) so that water can pass surfaces such as skin; may look different in
through easily. different places due to different functions.

Connective: Binds and strengthens other

tissues (tendons – muscle to bone and
ligaments – bone to bone).

Blood: Transport substances around the body

1
and defends against diseases 2.
Made up of 4 parts: Plasma, RBC, WBC and
Platelets.
Palisade Mesophyll Cell: 1
: RBC carries O2, CO2 around the body with
the presence of haemoglobin and transports
glucose, fatty acids and glycerol, amino acids,
hormones and urea in the plasma. Blood is
liquid for it to be easier to transport.
2
: WBC fights diseases and platelets help in
the clotting of blood to stop blood loss and the
entry of foreign organisms into the body
(indirectly defending against diseases).
*Plasma is a golden-yellow liquid which makes
up most of the blood, but blood is red due to
the number of RBC’s in the limited area, which
is a very large amount. Centrifuge mixes and
separates all parts of the blood, from which the
plasma is easily visible.

Tissues
Skeletal Tissue: Supports and protects softer
Groups of specialized cells form a specialized tissues and organs (rib cage protects heart
tissue. There are several tissues which are and lungs; vertebral column protects spinal
present in animals and plants. cord; cranium protects brain); allows
movement; made of bones.
Nervous Tissue: Sets up electrical nervous
impulses and transmits them around the body.

Muscle Tissue: Contracts to support and

move the body.

Plant Tissues

Epidermis: Protects transpiration and entry of

foreign organisms; maybe involved in
absorption of water and mineral ions in roots.

Mesophyll: Photosynthesis; means middle of

leaf.

Parenchyma: Fills spaces between other

plant tissues; maybe involved in storage (of
food for example).

Vascular: Transports materials (xylem: sap –

1 way – upwards, phloem: food – 2 way)
through the plant body.

Strengthening or Sclerenchyma: Supports

plant.

Magnification