BIO-MATERIALS

Introduction
Tuesday 08:00 -09:00
Wednesday 10:00 -11:00 ME-510 Biomaterials: Principles and Practices
Friday 11:00 -12:00

Prof A P Harsha
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology (BHU)
Varanasi 221005
E-mail : [Link]@[Link]

1
Objective of the course:
Introduce the field of biomaterials in medicine and their use in specific
implant designs focusing on: material and implant requirements,
structure-property relationships for synthetic and biological materials, and
static and dynamics properties of biomaterials.

The primary objectives of the course are: Understand biology and physiology,
and apply math, science and engineering to solve the problems at the
interface of engineering and biology; Knowledge of contemporary issues;
Evaluate design considerations, experimental techniques and data
interpretation; Understand professional and ethical responsibility; Use
techniques, skills and tools necessary for engineering practice.

2
Course Content:
UNIT I: (4 Lectures)
Course Overview and Introduction
UNIT II: (5 Lectures) Laboratory Component:
Properties of Biomaterials: Physics of surfaces and surface
No
analysis techniques
UNIT III: (10 Lectures) Readings:
Different Materials Used in biological applications Text Books:
UNIT IV: (5 Lectures) Biomaterials Science: An
Biomaterials Degradation in the in vivo (biological) introduction to materials in
environment
Medicine. Buddy D. Ratner
UNIT V: (5 Lectures)
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Biomaterials et al. 2012, 3rd edition
UNIT VI: (5 Lectures) (textbook is not required for
Biocompatibility this class).
UNIT VII: (4 Lectures)
Selected Applications of Biomaterials
UNIT VIII: (3 Lectures)
Special Considerations for Implants, Devices and
Biomaterials
3
Biomaterial Science

4
•Biomaterials is a wide-ranging field, encompassing
aspects of basic biology, medicine, engineering, and
materials science, that has developed to its current form
primarily since World War II.

• A material intended to interface

What is a
Biomaterial? with biological systems to
evaluate, treat, augment, or
replace any tissue, organ or
function of the body.
5
Other Definitions of Bio-materials
• Nonviable materials used in a medical device, intended to interact with
biological systems.
• Others include “materials of synthetic as well as of natural origin in
contact with tissue, blood, and biological fluids, and intended for use
for prosthetic, diagnostic, therapeutic, and storage applications without
adversely affecting the living organism and its components”.

• “any substance (other than drugs) or combination of substances,

synthetic or natural in origin, which can be used for any period of time,
as a whole or as a part of a system which treats, augments, or replaces
any tissue, organ, or function of the body” and adds to the many ways
of looking at the same but expressing it in different ways.

6
The compelling, human side to biomaterials is
that millions of lives are saved, and the quality of
life is improved for millions more.
Biomaterials used in
• prostheses in cardiovascular,
• orthopedic,
• dental,
• ophthalmological,
• reconstructive surgery, and
• surgical sutures,
• bio-adhesives, and
• controlled drug release devices.
7
Biomaterials science is the study of biomaterials
and their interactions with the biological
environment. This includes subjects relating to
materials science,
• Mechanical properties of materials
• Surface modification of implants,
• Immunology,
• toxicology, and wound healing processes.

8
The path from the basic science of biomaterials, to a
medical device, to clinical application.

9
Preclinical Evaluation of Medical Devices

In Vitro Testing In Vivo Testing

Cytotoxicity Biocompatibility

Cell Adhesion Tissue Integration

Proliferation Degradation

Differentiation Functional Outcomes

Preclinical
Evaluation Biomechanical Testing
Pharmacokinetic and
Pharmacodynamic Studies
Strength
Release Rate Stiffness
Distribution Fatigue Resistance
Target Tissue Effects Wear

10
Balancing Challenges and Solutions in Biomaterial Medical Device Risk Classification
Development

Biological Class III

System Predictive
Complexity Modeling Tools
Class II
Regulatory Streamlined
Approval Approval Class I
Hurdles Processes
High Cost-Effective
Development Strategies
Costs Class I: Low-risk devices, such as bandages and tongue
Collaborative depressors.
Translation Gap Research
Class II: Moderate-risk devices, such as surgical gloves and
powered wheelchairs.
Class III: High-risk devices, such as heart valves and
Challenges Solutions implantable defibrillators.

11
Diagram of multidisciplinary contribution to biomaterials

Materials Science
& Engineering
Biophysics

Biomaterials

Medical Science
Chemistry

12
▪ Biocompatibility The ability of a material to
perform with an appropriate host response in
a specific application.
• Host response: the reaction of a living system
to the presence of a material.
• Bio-materialist must consider both the
material properties and the biological reaction
to ensure that the chosen material is
appropriate for the given application.

13
“Appropriate host responses "include resistance to
• blood clotting,
• resistance to bacterial colonization,
• normal, uncomplicated healing.
Examples of “specific applications” include a
membrane,
a urinary catheter or a hip joint replacement
prosthesis.
▪ Note that the hemodialysis membrane might be in
contact with the patient's blood for five hours, the
catheter may be inserted for a week, and the hip
joint may be in place for the life of the patient.
14
Host Reactions to Biomaterials
■ Thrombosis
■ Hemolysis
■ Inflammation
■ Infection and Sterilization
■ Carcinogenesis
■ Hypersensitivity
■ Systemic Effects

15
 Performance of Biomaterials
• The success of biomaterials in the body depends on factors such as the
material properties, design, and biocompatibility of the material used, as well
as other factors not under the control of the engineer, including the technique
used by the surgeon, the health and condition of the patient, and the
activities of the patient.
• If we assign a numerical value f to the probability of failure of an implant,
then the reliability can be expressed as
r = 1 - f.
• If there are multiple modes of failure, then the total reliability rt is given by the
product of the individual reliabilities r1= (1–f1), and so on:
rt = r1, r2, r3……………… • loosening and implant fracture

• type of implant and its location and function in the body

• inducing a clot or becoming clogged with thrombus
16
 • Biocompatibility involves the acceptance of an artificial implant by the
surrounding tissues and by the body as a whole.
- Do not irritate the surrounding structures
- Do not provoke an abnormal inflammatory response,
- Do not incite allergic or immunologic reactions, and
- Do not cause cancer.
• Other compatibility characteristics that may be important in the function of an
implant device made of biomaterials include
i. adequate mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, and fatigue
properties.
ii. appropriate optical properties if the material is to be used in the eye, skin, or
tooth, and
iii. appropriate density. Sterilizability, manufacturability, long-term storage, and
appropriate engineering design are also to be considered.

17
Conventional material requirements in
orthopaedic applications

18
Schematic illustration
of biocompatibility

19
Characteristics of Biomaterials
■ Physical Requirements
■ Hard Materials.
■ Flexible Material.

■ Chemical Requirements
■ Must not react with any tissue in the
body.
■ Must be non-toxic to the body.
■ Long-term replacement must not be
biodegradable.
20
 History and Current Status of the Field
• Archaeologists have uncovered remains of humans containing
metal dental implants from as early as 200 A.D.,

• Linen was used as a suture material by the Egyptians.

• Development of the biomaterials field significantly increased after

World War II with the widespread availability of synthetic
materials that were originally designed for use in the war.

21
 Skin/cartilage
Drug Delivery
Devices
Ocular implants
Polymers

Orthopedic Bone
screws/fixation replacements

Heart
valves
Metals Synthetic Ceramics
BIOMATERIALS

Dental Implants Dental Implants

Semiconductor
Materials Biosensors
Implantable
Microelectrodes

22
Diverse Applications of Synthetic Biomaterials

Implants

Orthopedic, dental,
cardiovascular, and breast
implants Sutures
Biodegradable sutures for
wound closure
Drug Delivery Systems
Controlled-release systems
for targeted therapy
Wound Dressings
Dressings to promote healing
Tissue Engineering Scaffolds and prevent infection

Scaffolds for regenerating

tissues and organs
Medical Devices
Catheters, tubing, and other
medical devices

23
Evolution of Biomaterial Science & Technology
•1st generation (since
1950s)
Goal: Bioinertness
•2nd generation (since
1980s)
Goal: Bioactivity
•3rd generation (since
2000s)
Goal: Regenerate
functional tissue
24
 First Generation Biomaterials

•Specified by physicians using

common and borrowed materials.
•Most successes were accidental
rather than by design.

25
Second Generation of Biomaterials

•Developed through collaborations of physicians and

engineers.
•Engineered implants using common and borrowed
materials.
•Built on first generation experiences.
•Used advances in materials science (from other
fields).

26
Third generation implants

•Bioengineered implants using

bioengineered materials.
•Few examples on the market.
•Some modified and new polymeric
devices.
•Many under development.

27
Examples of Biomaterial Applications
Heart Valve
Restores heart function with
advanced valve technology.

Artificial Tissue
Enhances tissue regeneration
and repair processes.

Dental Implants
Provides durable and
aesthetic dental solutions.

Biomaterial
Innovations
Intraocular Lenses
Improves vision with
advanced lens technology.

Hip Replacements
Replaces damaged joints,
enhancing mobility and
comfort.

Vascular Grafts
Restores blood flow with
innovative graft designs.

28
 Heart Valve Prostheses Prosthetic heart valves. Left: A bileaflet
• The natural heart valve opens and tilting disk mechanical heart valve. Right: A
closes over 40 million times per year, bioprosthetic tissue heart valve
and can require replacement due to
disease or wear.
• There are many types of heart valve
prostheses, and they are fabricated
from carbons, metals, elastomers,
plastics, fabrics, and animal or
human tissues chemically pretreated
to reduce their immunologic
reactivity, and to enhance durability.

• In spite of the overall success seen with replacement heart valves, there are
problems, many of them specific to a specific type of valve; they include
induction of blood clots (sometimes shed into the bloodstream as emboli),
degeneration of valve tissue leaflets, mechanical failure (e.g., at weld joints), and
infection.
29
Different types of prosthetic valves

30
Normal versus Arthritic Hip
❑ Sir John Charnley: 1960's, fundamental principles of the artificial
hip
❑ Frank Gunston: 1969, developed one of the first artificial knee
joints.
❑ Hip replacements done in the world per year: between 500,000
and 1 million.
❑ Number of knee replacements done in the world per year:
between 250,000 and 500,000.
❑ Of all the factors leading to total hip replacement, osteoarthritis
is the most common, accounting for 65% of all total hips.
31
Normal versus Arthritic Hip

Normal Hip: note the Arthritic Hip: No space

space between the femur visible in joint, as
and acetabulum, due to cartilage is missing
cartilage
32
Total Hip Replacement Prostheses
▪ Because of degenerative or
rheumatoid disease, the natural joint
wears out, leading to loss of mobility
and sometimes confinement to a
wheelchair.
▪ Hip joint prostheses are fabricated
from a variety of materials, including
titanium, stainless steel, special
high-strength alloys, ceramics,
composites, and ultrahigh molecular
weight polyethylene (UHMWPE).
▪ After 10–15 years, many of these implants fail by loosening, which usually
necessitates another operation (a revision procedure). Metal-on-metal
implants also experience problems of corrosion and adverse responses
to released metal ions.
33
Understanding Rheumatoid Arthritis

Autoimmune Disease
Immune system attacks synovium, causing
joint inflammation.

Chronic Condition
Long-term disease with flare-ups and
remissions.

Systemic Disease
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Affects multiple body systems beyond just
joints.

Inflammatory Arthritis
Causes inflammation and swelling in joints.

34
Dental Implants

35
▪ Root form designs of titanium
Schematic images of early dental root
implants revolutionized dental
implantology form implants and a photograph of
▪ These devices form an implanted several designs used in clinical
artificial tooth anchor upon which a practice.
crown is affixed.
▪ A special requirement of a material
in this application is the ability to
form a tight seal against bacterial
invasion where the implant traverses
the gingiva (gum).

▪ One of the primary advantages for

the titanium implant was its osseous
integration with the bone of the
jaw.
▪ Loss of tissue support leading to loosening remains an occasional problem, along with
infection and issues associated with the mechanical properties of unalloyed titanium
that is subjected to long-term cyclic loading.
36
Intraocular Lenses
▪ Implants to replace lenses in the
eye that have clouded due to
cataracts are called intraocular
lenses (IOLs).
▪ They have been fabricated from a
variety of transparent materials
including poly(methyl
methacrylate), silicone elastomer,
soft acrylic polymers, and
hydrogels.
▪ IOL surgical procedures are
well-developed, and implantation is
most often performed on an
outpatient basis.
37
• The path from an identified need to a clinical
product, and some of the disciplines that
facilitate this development process.

❑ Diverse Materials are Used

▪ It provides a perspective on how different

disciplines work together, starting from the
identification of a need for a biomaterial
through development, manufacture,
implantation, and (possibly) removal from the
patient.

38
Five characteristics of biomaterials science:
Integrating diverse
expertise for Multidisciplinary
1
comprehensive Approach
problem-solving.

Enhancing
functionality with Multi-Material
2 advanced multi-
Solutions
material
technologies.

Addressing urgent
Biomaterial
3 healthcare demands Clinical Needs
with targeted Innovation
innovations.

Strong market
Market
4 demand driving
adoption and Potential
impact.

Ensuring benefits
Risk-Benefit
5 outweigh risks in
new technologies. Analysis

39
Subjects integral to biomaterials science

Toxicology
▪ A biomaterial should not be toxic, unless it is specifically engineered for such
requirements (e.g.,a “smart” drug delivery system that targets cancer cells with
a toxic drug and destroys them).
▪ Since the nontoxic requirement is the norm, toxicology for biomaterials has
evolved into a sophisticated science. For example, for polymers, many low
molecular weight “leachables” exhibit some level of physiologic activity and cell
toxicity.
Inflammation and Healing.
• Injury to tissue will stimulate the well-defined inflammatory reaction sequence
that ultimately leads to healing.
• Healing can be normal (physiological) or abnormal (pathological).
• Where a foreign body (e.g., an implant) is present in the wound site (the
surgical incision), the reaction sequence is referred to as the “foreign body
reaction” 40
Functional Tissue Structure and Pathobiology
• Biomaterials- based medical devices are implanted into
almost all tissues and organs.
• Tissues and organs vary widely in cell composition,
morphological organization, vascularization, and
innervation.
• Implantation of a biomaterial into bone, liver, or heart will
have special physiological consequences.
• Therefore, key principles governing the structure of
normal (and abnormal) cells, tissues, and organs are
important to biomaterials researchers.
41
Dependence on Specific Anatomical Sites of Implantation
• Consideration of the anatomical site of an implant is
essential.
• An intraocular lens may be implanted into the lens capsule
or the anterior chamber of the eye.
• A hip joint will be implanted in the bone across an
articulating joint space.
• A prosthetic heart valve will be sutured into cardiac muscle
and will contact both soft tissue and blood.
• A catheter may be placed in an artery, a vein or the urinary
tract. Each of these sites challenges the biomedical device
designer with special requirements for anatomy, physiology,
geometry, size, mechanical properties, and bioresponses.
42
Mechanical Requirements and Physical Performance Requirements.
These requirements can be divided into three categories:
❑ Mechanical performance,
- A hip prosthesis must be strong and rigid.
- A tendon material must be strong and flexible.
- A tissue heart valve leaflet must be flexible and tough.
- A dialysis membrane must be strong and flexible, but not elastomeric.
❑ Mechanical durability,
- A catheter may only have to perform for three days.
- A bone plate may fulfil its function in six months or longer.
- A leaflet in a heart valve must flex 60 times per minute (at least for 10 or more years).
- A hip joint must not fail for 20 years or more.
❑ Chemical stability – e.g. osseous integration.
❑ Physical properties.
- The dialysis membrane has a specified permeability,
- The intraocular lens has transparency and refraction requirements.

43
 Industrial Involvement
• A significant basic research effort is primarily at universities, to
understand how biomaterials function and how to optimize them.
• Companies are producing implants for use in humans and,
appropriate to the mission of a company, earning profits on the
sale of medical devices.
• Industries manufacturer millions of devices for implantation in
humans
• The medical practitioner can use them with reasonable
confidence, and the performance in the patient is largely
acceptable (generally considerably better than other
alternatives).

44
Risk–Benefit and Corporate Realities.
• A risk–benefit analysis must be considered in developing new
devices and improving existing devices.
• The desire to improve the quality of life for patients.
• The acceptable risk varies with different types of medical devices.
• The acceptable risk of devices that sustain life is greater than that
of devices that alleviate pain/disability or enhance function.
• For example heart valve, cardiac assist device, haemodialysis
device, hip joint, drug delivery device, intraocular lens etc.
• The companies have large investments in the development,
manufacture, quality control, clinical testing, regulatory clearance,
and distribution of medical devices.

45
 Risk–Benefit and Corporate Realities.
• How much of an advantage (for the company and the patient)
will be realized in introducing an improved device?
• The improved device may indeed work better for the patient.
However, the company will incur a large expense (development
and regulatory costs) that will be perceived by the stockholders
as reduced profits.
• Product liability issues are a major concern to manufacturers.
-Unforeseen complication
• Industry deals well with technologies such as packaging,
sterilization, storage, distribution, quality control, and analysis.

46
Ethical Concerns Relevant to Biomaterials Science
Animals Ethics
Is the animal model relevant to human physiology?
Human Subjects
How should human subject research be conducted to minimize negative outcomes to the
patient and offer a reasonable risk-to benefit ratio? How can we best ensure informed
consent?
Industrial Involvement
Companies fund much biomaterials research and also own proprietary biomaterials. How can
the needs of the patient be best balanced with the financial goals of a company? Consider that
someone must manufacture devices – these would not be available if a company did not
choose to manufacture them.
Researchers
Since researchers often stand to benefit financially from a successful biomedical device, and
sometimes even have devices named after them, how can investigator bias be minimized in
biomaterials research?

47
Patients
For life-sustaining devices, what is the trade-off between sustaining life and the quality of life
with the device for the patient? Should the patient be permitted to “pull the plug” if the quality
of life is not satisfactory?
Regulatory Agencies
With so many unanswered questions about the basic science of biomaterials, do government
regulatory agencies have sufficient information to define adequate tests for materials and
devices and to properly regulate biomaterials?

Regulations
The consumer (the patient) and the physician demand safe medical devices.
• US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
• The International Standards Organization (ISO)
• ASTM International
• Are the regulations and standards truly addressing the safety issues?
• Is the cost of regulation inflating the cost of healthcare and preventing improved
devices from reaching those who need them?

48
Biomaterial Product Testing
Biomedical product development generally includes the following
stages:

• In vitro testing
• In vivo studies with healthy experimental animals
• In vivo studies with animal models of disease (if applicable)
• Controlled clinical trials

49
 Standards
• Test methods
• Materials standards
• Device standards
• Procedure standards
 ISO 10993 and EN 30993
• ISO 10993-1: guidance on selection of tests
• ISO 10993-2: Animal welfare requirements
• ISO 10993-3: Test for genotoxicity, carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity
• ISO 10993-4: Selection of tests for interactions with blood
• ISO 10993-5: Tests for cytotoxicity: In vitro methods
• ISO 10993-6: Test for local effects after implantation
• ISO 10993-7: Ethylene oxide sterilization residuals
• ISO 10993-8: Clinical investigation
• ISO 10993-9: Degradation of materials related to biological testing
• ISO 10993-10: Tests for irritation and sensitization
• ISO 10993-11: Tests for systemic toxicity
• ISO 10993-12: Sample preparation and reference materials
• ........
 Sterilization Methods
❑ Moist heat (121-125oC, 15-30 min)
❑ EO (CH2CH2O)
❑ Radiation (60Co & Electron Beam)
❑ Dry heat > 140oC
❑ Others (UV, Ozone X-ray etc)
 Leading medical device company
• Johnson & Johnson ([Link])
• Biomet INC ([Link])
• Strycker Howmedica Osteonics ([Link])
• Sulzer Orthopedics Ltd ([Link])
• Zimmer ([Link])
• Merck & Co Inc ([Link])
• Nobel biocare/AstraZeneca/Pacesetter
AB/Q-med/Artimplant/Doxa
TABLE 1 Fields of Knowledge to Develop Biomaterials

Discipline Examples
Science and structure–property relationship of synthetic and
engineering biological materials including metals, ceramics,
Materials sciences: polymers,composites, tissues (blood and connective
tissues), etc.
Biology and Cell and molecular biology, anatomy, animal and
physiology: human physiology, histopathology, experimental
surgery, immunology, etc.
Clinical sciences All dentistry, maxillofacial, neurosurgery, obstetrics and
the clinical gynecology, ophthalmology, orthopedics,
specialties: otolaryngology, plastic and reconstructive surgery,
thoracic and cardiovascular surgery, veterinary
medicine, surgery, etc
54
Table 2 Uses of Biomaterials
Problem Area Examples
Replacement of diseased or Artificial hip joint, kidney dialysis machine
damaged part
Assist in healing Sutures, bone plates, and screws
Improve function Cardiac pacemaker, intraocular lens
Correct functional Cardiac pacemaker
abnormality
Correct cosmetic problem Augmentation mammoplasty, chin
augmentation
Aid to diagnosis Probes and catheters
Aid to treatment Catheters, drains

55
Table 3 Biomaterials in Organs
Organ Examples
Heart Cardiac pacemaker, artificial heart valve, total
artificial heart
Lung Oxygenator machine
Eye Contact lens, intraocular lens
Ear Artificial stapes, cochlea implant
Bone Bone plate, intramedullary rod
Kidney Kidney dialysis machine
Bladder Catheter and stent

56
 TABLE 4 Biomaterials in Body Systems
System Examples
Skeletal Bone plate, total joint replacements
Muscular Sutures, muscle stimulator
Circulatory Artificial heart valves, blood vessels
Respiratory Oxygenator machine
Integumentary Sutures, burn dressings, artificial skin
Urinary Catheters, stent, kidney dialysis machine
Nervous Hydrocephalus drain, cardiac pacemaker, nerve
stimulator
Endocrine Microencapsulated pancreatic islet cells
Reproductive Augmentation mammoplasty, other cosmetic
replacements
57
TABLE 5 Materials for Use in the Body
Materials Advantages Disadvantages Examples
Polymers (nylon, silicone Resilient Easy to Not strong Sutures, blood vessels, hip
rubber, polyester, fabricate Deforms with time socket, ear, nose, other soft
polytetrafluoroethylene, May degrade tissues, sutures
etc.)
Metals (Ti and its alloys, Strong, tough, May corrode Joint replacements, bone
Co–Cr alloys, stainless ductile Dense plates and screws, dental
steels, Au, Ag, Pt, etc.) Difficult to make root implants, pacer and
suture wires
Ceramics (aluminum Very Brittle Dental, femoral head of hip
oxide, calcium phosphates biocompatible, Not resilient replacement, coating of
including hydroxyapatite, inert, strong in Difficult to make dental and orthopedic
carbon) compression implants
Composites Strong, tailor-made Difficult to make Joint implants, heart valves
(carbon–carbon, wire, or
fiber-reinforced bone
cement) implants, heart
valves
58
 TABLE Notable Developments Relating to Implants
Late eighteenth to nineteenth
century Various metal devices to fix bone fractures; wires and pins from Fe, Au, Ag, and Pt
1860–1870 J. Lister Aseptic surgical techniques
1886 H. Hansmann Ni-plated steel bone fracture plates
1893–1912 W.A. Lane Steel screws and plates (Lane fracture plate)
1912 W.D. Sherman Vanadium steel plates, first developed for medical use; lesser
stress concentration and corrosion (Sherman plate)
1924 A.A. Zierold Introduced Stellites (CoCrMo alloy)
1926 M.Z. Lange Introduced 18-8sMo stainless steel, better than 18-8 stainless steel
1926 E.W. Hey-Groves Used Carpenter’s screw for femoral neck fracture
1931 M.N. Smith-Petersen First femoral neck fracture fixation device made of stainless steel
C.S. Venable, W.G.
1936 Stuck Introduced Vitallium (19-9 stainless steel), later changed the
material to CoCr alloys
1938 P. Wiles First total hip replacement prosthesis
1939 J.C. Burch, H.M Carney Introduced tantalum (Ta)
1946 J. Judet and R. Judet First biomechanically designed femoral head replacement
prosthesis; first plastics (PMMA) used in joint replacements
1940s M.J. Dorzee, First used acrylics (PMMA) for corneal replacement
1947 J. Cotton Introduced Ti and its alloys
1952 A.B. Voorhees, First successful blood vessel replacement made of cloth for tissue
1958 S. Furman, G. Robinson First successful direct heart stimulation
1958 J. Charnley First use of acrylic bone cement in total hip replacement on the
advice of Dr. D. Smith
1960 A. Starr, M.L. Edwards First commercial heart valves 59
1970s W.J. Kolff Total heart replacement
 Biomaterials Companies
•Baxter International develops technologies related to the blood and circulatory system.

• Biocompatibles Ltd. develops commercial applications for technology in the field of biocompatibility.

• Carmeda makes a biologically active surface that interacts with and supports the bodys own control mechanisms

• Collagen Aesthetics Inc. bovine and human placental sourced collagens, recombinant collagens, and PEG-polymers

• Endura-Tec Systems Corp. bio-mechanical endurance testing ofstents, grafts, and cardiovascular materials

• Howmedica develops and manufactures products in orthopaedics.

• MATECH Biomedical Technologies, development of biomaterials by chemical polymerization methods.

• Medtronic, Inc. is a medical technology company specializing in implantable and invasive therapies.

• Molecular Geodesics Inc., biomimetic materials for biomedical, industrial, and military applications

• Polymer Technology Group is involved in the synthesis, characterization, and manufacture of new polymer products.

• SurModics, offers PhotoLink(R) surface modification technology that can be used to immobilize biomolecules

• W.L. Gore Medical Products Division, PTFE microstructures configured to exclude or accept tissue ingrowth.

• Zimmer, design, manufacture and distribution of orthopaedic implants and related equipment and supplies
SUMMARY
Biomaterials science may be the most
multidisciplinary of all the sciences. Consequently,
biomaterials scientists must master certain key
material from many fields of science, technology,
engineering, and medicine in order to be competent
and conversant in this profession.

61