378.

pdf

A SunCam online continuing education course

Water Storage Tanks

by

Mark Ludwigson, P.E.

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Water Storage Tanks

A SunCam online continuing education course

Course Outline:

Purpose and Function of a Water Storage Tank

Regulations and Industry Standards
Types of Storage Tanks
Tank Sizing
Mixing Considerations
Tank Features
Water Quality Concerns
Helpful References
Examination

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Purpose and Function of a Water Storage Tank

Water storage tanks serve a critical role in ensuring the reliable supply of high-pressure
potable water to communities. They are also financially beneficial as they decrease the
size of required pumping facilities and reduce energy consumption. Water storage tanks
are located in nearly every water distribution system around the world. It is important
that engineers understand the different functions of water storage tanks.

This course focuses on water storage tanks that hold “finished water”. Finished water
means water that has been treated and disinfected and is ready for distribution to the
community as potable water.

The following table provides a summary of the different purposes and functions of a
finished water storage tank.

Table 1 – Typical Purpose and Function of a Water Storage Tank

Purpose How it Functions Comments

System failures include
Store potable water so it is
1. Increase Reliability of power outages, storm
available during system
Drinking Water damage, flooding, and pipe
failures
breaks
Store a large volume of water Some water systems have
2. Store Water for Fire
reserved for fire protection separate fire protection
Demands
systems and fire fighting water tanks
Tank fills during low demand
Similar to an equalization
3. Normalize Flow and drains during high
tank; see the Tank Sizing
Rates demand, thereby keeping
section for details
influent flows consistent
4. Provide High- Height of water surface above Applies to elevated tanks
Pressure Water Without grade results in high pressure only (not ground storage
Pumping in the distribution system tanks or standpipes)

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Regulations and Industry Standards

Storage tanks are considered one of the most vulnerable components of a water supply
system. Storage tanks are to be carefully designed and regularly inspected to minimize
security risks and water quality risks. To help protect the public from potential risks, a
variety of regulations and standards have been developed for the design, operation, and
inspection of storage tanks in potable water supply systems.

The Recommended Standards for Water Works, also known as the Ten States
Standards, is the most commonly recognized industry standard for the design of water
storage tanks, as well as for other water system components. Most states in the United
States and most provinces in Canada have adopted and enforce the Ten States
Standards. Section 7 of the Ten States Standards, entitled “Finish Water Storage”,
includes about six pages of specific recommendations for the design of water storage
tanks.

Some municipalities have additional requirements for the design and inspection of
storage tanks. Local building codes may also affect aspects of a new tank, such as the
required height above the base flood elevation, maximum tank height, maximum
impervious area for the site, minimum setback from the property line, and architectural
requirements.

For an engineer tasked with the design of a new storage tank, local regulations should
be reviewed during each stage of the design process to ensure compliance. The design
will likely require a permit submittal to the environmental agency with jurisdiction for
making modifications to the potable water system. After construction of the tank, a final
submittal may be required to confirm the tank has been properly disinfected in
accordance with AWWA Standard C652 and bacteriological testing has shown an
absence of fecal coliform.

Additional guidelines for the design, operation, and inspection of storage tanks have
been published by the AWWA and EPA. See the References Section for a list of key
documents.

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Types of Storage Tanks

There are three main types of water storage tanks: ground, elevated, or standpipe.
Each of these is explained below. Note that buried tanks and hydropneumatic tanks are
not covered as they are relatively uncommon for water distribution applications.

1. Ground Storage Tanks

The most common type of water tank is the ground storage tank. This is a tank with the
floor at ground level. Ground storage tanks are also called ground level reservoirs.
However, the term reservoir implies that the tank may not be covered, and for finished
water tanks, a watertight roof is required per Section 7.1.10 of the Ten States
Standards. Therefore, the term ground storage tank is more commonly used.

Figures 1 and 2 show examples of finished water ground storage tanks.

Figure 1: A stainless steel ground storage tank

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Figure 2: A concrete ground storage tank with pleasant architectural features.

A ground storage tank requires pumping out of the tank to provide sufficient pressure in
the distribution system. This in contrast to an elevated tank which can provide
pressurized water to the distribution system.

Ground storage tanks are the most economical type of storage tank because they are
constructed at ground level. The construction cost of a ground storage tank is often
stated as a cost per unit volume (dollars per gallon or dollars per cubic meter). To
calculate the unit cost, simply divide the cost be the volume. For example, a 2 million
gallon tank that costs 1 million dollars to construct, has a unit cost of $0.50 per gallon.
Unit costs are handy for initial capital budget planning purposes and for comparing
alternative storage tank arrangements and materials of construction.

Ground storage tanks have a low surface area to volume ratio, which can be calculated
as follows:
2(𝑟 + ℎ )
𝑠𝑎/𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝑟∗ℎ
where:
𝑠𝑎/𝑣𝑜𝑙 = surface area to volume ratio
𝑟 = tank radius
ℎ = sidewall height

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A low surface area to volume ratio provides the following advantages:

• Lower construction cost due to minimized total area of floor, walls, and dome,
• Decreased risk of a security breach since there is a smaller area of walls and
dome to protect,
• Decreased risk of external contamination due to minimized total area of floor,
walls, and dome,
• Best configuration for water quality due to a more homogenous mixing,
decreased dead zones, and decreased likelihood for thermal stratification.
• Avoids both an excessive footprint and an excessive height.

2. Elevated Storage Tanks

Elevated storage tanks have the floor of the tank above ground. They are often called
water towers. Examples of different types of elevated storage tanks are shown in
Figures 3 and 4.

Figure 3: A conical bottom water tower (left) and spherical bottom water tower (right).

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Figure 4: A multi-leg water tower (left) and a fluted column water tower (right).

An elevated storage tank has the ability to provide stored water at high pressure to a
community. The higher the tank the higher the water pressure. Some tanks are high
enough to provide high-pressure water without the need for pumping. The water
pressure due to the static head is calculated as follows, based on Bernoulli’s principle:

ℎ ∗ 𝑠𝑔
𝑝= = 0.43 ∗ ℎ
2.31
where:
𝑝 = water pressure (psi)
ℎ = height of water (feet)
𝑠𝑔 = specific gravity of the fluid (1.0 for water)

When designing an elevated water storage tank, it is important to calculate the water
pressure that will be provide provided by the tank. The water pressure will vary based
on the elevations of the different buildings in the community and based on the water
level in the tank, as shown in Figure 5.

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High Water Level = 220.00

Low Water Level = 200.00
Elevated
Storage Tank
p = 0.43 * (200-50)
= 65 psi
p = 0.43 * (220-0)
= 95 psi

Elev = 50.00

Elev = 0.00

Figure 5: Water pressure (p) calculated for the buildings at the lowest and highest
elevations in a community with an elevated storage tank.

The highest water pressure is experienced in the lowest elevation building when the
elevated storage tank is at the high water level. It should be confirmed that the piping
system is designed to withstand the high water pressure. Note that water distribution
pipes are typically 3 to 5 feet below ground, so the pressure in the pipes should be
calculated at the lowest elevation of the piping. A pressure reducing valve can be
installed in the piping system to keep pressures below the design maximum.

The lowest water pressure is experienced in the highest elevation building when the
elevated storage tank is at the low water level. It should be confirmed that this pressure
exceeds the minimum acceptable water pressure. When calculating the lowest
pressure, pipe friction and fitting losses at maximum flow should be calculated and
subtracted.

Per the Ten States Standards, the distribution system shall be designed with a normal
working pressure of approximately 60 to 80 psi (410 - 550 kPa). A minimum pressure of
20 psi (140 kPa) at ground level must be maintained at all points in the distribution
system under all conditions of flow. Regulations typically require that a boil water
advisory be issued to the public if the pressure drops below 20 psi at any point in the
distribution system.

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Elevated storage tanks are more common in hilly areas where the tank can be located
on top of a hill, thereby reducing the height of the tank required and making it more
economical. Elevated tanks are less common along coastlines where hurricane-force
wind loads need to be accounted for in the structural design. Similarly, elevated tanks
are less common in high seismic zones.

3. Standpipes

A standpipe is a storage tank with the floor at ground level and with a height that is
greater than the diameter. Some consider a standpipe to be a type of water tower. In
the 1800s and early 1900s, standpipes were very common in water systems in cities
around the world. Figure 6 shows examples of standpipes.

Figure 6: Examples of standpipe installations.

A standpipe design produces a fair amount of water pressure, although pumping is still
required to achieve more than 60 psi in the distribution system. A standpipe over 50 feet
tall can produce enough pressure to keep the distribution system with a pressure over
20 psi if the pumping system fails, and thereby avoiding potential boil water advisories.

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The unit cost of a standpipe is greater than that of a ground storage tank but less than
an elevated storage tank.

While there are advantages to standpipes, they are prone to thermal stratification which
negatively effects water quality. Thermal stratification is when less dense warm water
rises to the top of the tank, thereby creating a temperature differential from the top to
the bottom of the tank. Standpipes are prone to thermal stratification for three reasons:
1. A tall and skinny tank geometry naturally promotes thermal stratification. The
taller the tank, the greater the potential temperature differential from top to
bottom.
2. Standpipes have a higher surface area to volume ratio meaning that more
surface area is exposed to heat from the sun.
3. It is more difficult to achieve homogenous mixing with a tall and skinny geometry.

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Tank Sizing

A major challenge in designing a storage tank is to determine the optimal size for the
tank. The following steps will help guide an engineer through the process of sizing a
tank:

Step No.

1. Gather Information

Calculate
2.
Regulatory Volume

Calculate Demand
3. Volume

4. Volume Selection

5. Preliminary Tank
Dimensions

6. Check Water Adjust

Levels

7. Compare Cost to Adjust

Budget

Step 1 is to obtain and review information. The following information should be

gathered, at a minimum:
• Check if there are any existing storage tanks and record their usable storage
volume.
• Obtain a site plan or survey for potential tank locations.

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• Obtain existing flow rate data including:

o average hourly flow for each hour of the day,
o peak hour flow,
o minimum daily flow,
o average daily flow, and
o maximum daily flow.
• Obtain or calculate the future projected demand and peaking factor. This is
based on the projected population growth and commercial development in the
community.

Step 2 is to calculate the minimum required storage volume according to regulatory

requirements. The Ten States Standards specifies that the required storage capacity
(volume) to be equal or greater than the average daily consumption (demand). This is in
addition to any fire flow requirements. For example, if the average daily flow over the
last year is 5 million gallons per day (mgd) and no fire flow is required, then the
minimum tank volume is 5 million gallons (MG). The designer should also check state
and municipal regulations for any additional storage volume requirements.

Step 3 is to calculate the demand storage volume. This takes into account the need for
diurnal flow equalization in the tank, fire flow demand, an emergency reserve, and dead
storage volume. The demand storage volume (DSV) can be calculated according to the
following formula:

𝐷𝑆𝑉 = 𝐸𝑄𝑉 + 𝐹𝐹𝑉 + 𝐸𝑅𝑉 + 𝐷𝑆𝑉

where:
𝐷𝑆𝑉 = Demand Storage Volume
𝐸𝑄𝑉 = Equalization Volume
𝐹𝐹𝑉 = Fire Flow Volume
𝐸𝑅𝑉 = Emergency Reserve Volume
𝐷𝑆𝑉 = Dead Storage Volume

Equalization Volume (EQV) is determined based on a diurnal flow curve, as shown in

Figure 7. The average daily flow is the horizontal red line, which represents the
relatively constant flow into the tank. In this curve, the tank is filling from 9 pm to 7 am,
and the tank is draining, or drawing down, from 7 am to 9 pm.

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Equalization Volume

Tank Full Tank Empty

Figure 7: Example equalization curve with diurnal demand in blue and the average daily
flow in red.

The area above the red line and below the blue curve represents the required
equalization volume. The volume can be calculated as follows:

∑|𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛 |∆𝑡 1

𝐸𝑄𝑉 = = ∑|𝑄𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑔 | ∆𝑡
2 2
where:
𝑄𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = Hourly Flow Demand (gpm)
𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑔 = Average Daily Flow (gpm)
∆𝑡 = 1 hr (60 min)

Note that the required equalization volume is slightly different for each day since water
demand in the community varies each day. For example, the flow demand curve during
a weekday is different from a weekend and different from a holiday. The designer

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should review diurnal flow data over a variety of days and pick the day with the highest
peaking factor. The peaking factor is the ratio between maximum hourly flow and
average daily flow. Days with high peaking factors require the most equalization
volume.

Another consideration for equalization volume is the future or projected flow demand. If
the flow demand is expected to increase by 50% in the future, a projection factor of 1.50
should be multiplied by the calculated equalization volume. Finally, the required
equalization volume should be rounded up by at least 10% to account for unforeseen
variations in diurnal flow.

Fire Flow Volume (FFV) may be determined based on the Insurance Services Office
(ISO) Method, or another method acceptable to the local governing body. The ISO
method involves calculating the Needed Fire Flow (NFF) and multiplying it by the
duration. A typical NFF is 2,500 to 3,500 gpm (158 to 221 L/sec) with a typical duration
of 2 or 3 hours. This results in a typical FFV of 0.30 to 0.63 MG. For more information
on calculating FFV for a storage tank, see AWWA Manual of Practice M31, Distribution
System Requirements for Fire Protection.

Emergency Reserve Volume (ERV) is for unusual events such as pipe breaks,
equipment failures, power outages, water contamination events, and natural disasters. It
is common to have an emergency reserve of 20% to 50% of the maximum day demand.
For example, if the maximum day demand is 10 mgd, the ERV would range from 2 MG
to 5 MG.

Estimate Dead Storage (DS) is the excess volume at the top and bottom of a tank that
is not normally usable. At the top of the tank, there is typically a freeboard of at least a
few inches between the maximum water level and the overflow elevation. And at the
bottom of the tank, there is a distance between the minimum water level and the floor of
the tank to prevent entrained air from entering the outlet pipe and, in some cases, to
provide sufficient positive suction head for the high service pumps. DS can be estimated
as 10% to 20% of the tank volume, and then checked in Step 6.

Step 4 is to compare the minimum regulatory volume from Step 2 and the demand
storage volume in Step 3. The greater volume should be selected as the storage
volume requirement. Typically, the selected volume is round up to the nearest 0.5 MG.

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Step 5 is to use the selected volume to define the preliminary tank dimensions. The first
step is to decide on the number of storage tanks. Ideally, there should be two or more
storage tanks in every distribution system for the following reasons:
• Regular tank inspection is best done with the tank empty. With a single tank, it
may not be possible to shut down the tank for a full day for inspection.
• There may be a failure in the tank or ancillary components that result in the tank
being taken out of service for emergency repair. Without a second tank, the
distribution system would be left vulnerable without any storage.
• Having two tanks provides operational flexibility to maintain water quality. For
example, if there is a period of low flow demand, one tank may be taken out of
service to prevent dead zones or excessive water age that can occur during low
flows.

The disadvantages to multiple storage tanks are increased capital cost, additional land
area required, and increased system complexity. If there is insufficient funding available
for two storage tanks, an option is to construct a single tank based on current demands
and plan for a future second tank based on future demands.

If multiple storage tanks are selected, they should be designed to have the same
maximum water level and overflow elevation. Ideally, they should be the same volume
for ease of operation. For example, a selected volume of 10 MG should be provided
with two 5 MG tanks.

If there is already an existing storage tank, then the new tank height should be set with
the same overflow elevation, to ensure both tanks can be fully utilized without either
tank overflowing. With the height known, the diameter can be calculated using the
formula for the volume of a cylinder:

𝜋 2 2
𝑉= 𝑑 ℎ In typical English units: 𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑙 = 5.87 𝑑𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑓𝑡
4
where:
𝑉 = Volume
𝑑 = diameter
ℎ = height

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If there are no existing tanks, then a tank supplier should be contacted to provide the
most economical diameter and height for the tank based on the selected volume. The
designer should utilize the most economical dimensions when possible to minimize
construction costs.

For an elevated tank, the height of the tank should be set to provide adequate pressure
in the distribution system, as depicted in Figure 5. For a standpipe, a mixing system
should be considered in the final selection of the size and shape of the tank.

Step 6 is to check the water levels in the tank. It is helpful to create a profile of the
tank(s) with the volumes calculated in Step 3 and the preliminary tank dimensions. See
Figure 8 for an example.

EL 32.0 High WS

Equalization = 1.5 MG

EL 20.0 Low WS
32’-0”
Fire Flow = 0.6 MG
Height

Emergency Reserve = 1.4 MG

EL 4.0 Min WS
Dead Storage = 0.5 MG
EL 0.0 Floor
146’-0” Diameter

Figure 8: Profile of a 4.0 MG Tank with elevations and demand volumes.

The Additional Storage represents the difference between the demand volume and the
final selected volume and is due to one or more of the following: regulatory volume
being greater than the demand volume, rounding up the total tank volume to the nearest
even number, to account for future projections, or as a safety margin.

The first water level to check is the minimum water surface (WS) elevation. This is the
minimum water depth at which water can be pumped out of the storage tank at the

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maximum flow rate without the risk of the following: 1) entrained air being sucked
through the outlet pipe, and 2) pump cavitation due to inadequate net positive suction
head (NPSH). To reduce the potential for entrained air, an anti-vortex plate can be
added to the tank outlet pipe. After determining the minimum WS, the Dead Storage
volume can be recalculated.

The low WS and high (or maximum) WS elevations define the normal operating range
of the tank. It is preferred to keep the water level above the low WS elevation to ensure
there is adequate water available for a fire event or other emergency.

The overflow elevation should be at least a few inches above the high WS elevation to
account for variation in level sensor readings, wave action at the water surface, and to
give time for operators to assess a high water level alarm prior to an overflow event.
Clarify with potential tank suppliers that the nominal tank volume is up to the high WS
and should not include the freeboard to the overflow elevation.

Step 7 is to calculate the capital cost for the new tank(s). As mentioned in Step 5, if two
tanks are desired but the capital cost exceeds the budget, a phased approach can be
taken by constructing one tank first and then the second tank in the future.

The following items should be taken into account when performing a cost estimate for a
new storage tank:
• Engineering for the design, permit support, and construction management.
• Tank supply and installation.
• Tank features such as ladders, access hatches, vent, and overflows.
• Tank foundation and subgrade.
• Tank grounding and lightning protection.
• Protective coatings and architectural features.
• Yard piping and valves associated with the new tank.
• Site lighting, CCTV cameras, fencing, and other security items.
• Stormwater features to manage drainage from the impervious area of the tank.
• Water testing, disinfection, bacteriological testing, and commissioning.
• Instrumentation, controls, and programming.
• General contractor overhead costs such as permit fees, mobilization,
demobilization, temporary facilities, risk management, bonds, profit, etc.
• Escalation to mid-point of construction.

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Mixing Considerations

Mixing systems have become common in water storage tanks since they can greatly
improve water quality. Mixing systems can perform one or more of the following
functions:
• Reduce thermal stratification.
• Improve water circulation and eliminate dead zones.
• Increase uniformity of water age.
• Allow chemicals to be injected directly into the tank.
• Releases volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and thereby reduces the formation
of trihalomethane (THM), a disinfection by-product (DBP).

The following table lists common types of mixing systems with advantages and
disadvantages.

Table 2 – Comparison of Mixing Systems

Mixing System Description Advantages

Hanging Curtains Flow must travel between a series No power consumption or

or Baffle Walls of walls or curtains. maintenance required.

Effective mixing that is not

A mechanical mixer can be
reliant on influent flow rate.
Mechanical Mixer mounted on the tank floor, on a
Most compatible with
rail, or float on the tank surface.
chemical injection.
No power consumption or
The inlet pipe is extended into the
Passive Mixing maintenance required.
tank with a series of nozzles
System Addresses thermal
designed to mix the tank contents.
stratification.
Air is added to the water through
Effective mixing that is not
diffusers with a blower or an
Aeration System reliant on influent flow rate.
eductor with a pump and
Reduces THM formation.
recirculation piping.

Figures 9 and 10 show examples of tank mixing system installations.

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Figure 9: A passive mixing system with several nozzles designed to mix the entire tank.

Figure 10: A rail-mounted submersible mixer which is removable from the hatch above.

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Tank Features

Several important tank features are needed for the successful operation and
maintenance of storage tanks. Typical tank features for a ground storage tank are
shown in Figure 11 for an elevated storage tank and Figure 12 for a fluted column
elevated storage tank.

The Ten States Standards includes the following requirements for tank features:
• Drain lines and overflow lines shall not connect directly to a sewer or storm drain.
• Overflow pipes shall terminate 12 to 24 inches above the ground surface and
include an insect screen. Overflows shall be located so any discharge is visible.
The overflow area shall be sufficient for passing water at the filling rate.
• All storage tanks shall have reasonably convenient access to the interior for
cleaning and maintenance.
• The vent must be separate from the overflow. Vents shall be covered to prevent
the entrance of rainwater and shall have insect screening.
• The roof and sidewalls shall be watertight with only essential openings or
penetrations.
• Safety features shall be provided such as ladder guards/cages, guard railings,
handholds, and protective bars over riser pipe openings.
• Sample taps shall be provided to facilitate the collection of water samples for
bacteriological testing and water quality analysis.

The vent needs to have a large enough area to prevent pressurization of the tank during
filling and a vacuum in the tank during drawing/emptying. The following guidelines can
be used to size a vent. These values should be confirmed with the tank manufacturer:
• Ventilation area is to be size to release a minimum of 6 standard cubic feet per
hour of air for every 42 gallons per hour of water inflow, per API Standard 2000,
Section [Link], and UL 142.
• Air velocity through the vent should be less than 3.5 ft/s (1 m/s) at peak hourly
flow conditions for concrete domes and 8 ft/s (2.4 m/s) for steel or fiberglass
tanks.
• Ventilation area shall be a minimum of three times the area of the influent pipe
for concrete domes and equal to the inlet area for steel or fiberglass tanks.

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Vent
Top Access
Overflow

Exterior
Interior Liquid
Ladder
Ladder Level
Indicator

Pressure
Altitude Sensing Side Level
Valve Line Access Anti-Vortex Sensor
Plate Drain

Inlet Mixer Outlet

Figure 11: Typical tank features for a ground storage tank.

Vent and Top Access Ultrasonic

Overflow Level Sensor

Access
Tube

Tank Floor Tank Bottom

Access
Walkway
Inlet/Outlet
Pipe Interior
Ladder

Altitude Side
Valve Access

Figure 12: Typical tank features for a fluted column elevated storage tank.

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The following table indicates if tank features are required, common, or uncommon for
the three main types of water storage tanks.

Table 3: Tank Features for Different Types of Water Tanks

Ground Storage Elevated Storage
Feature Standpipe
Tank Tank
Required, Required,
Beacon Light Uncommon
Depends on Height Depends on Height
Vent Required Required Required
Overflow Required Required Required
Top Access Hatch Common Common Common
Only common for
Exterior Ladder Common Common
Multi-Leg Type
Common except for
Interior Ladder Common Uncommon
Multi-Leg Type
Access Tube Common except for
Uncommon Uncommon
Though Tank Multi-Leg Type
Side Access Hatch Common Common Common
Liquid Level
Common Uncommon Uncommon
Indicator
Level Sensor Required Required Required
Mixing System Common Uncommon Common
Altitude Valve with Common, Common, Common,
Sensing Line One way One-way & Two-way One-way & Two-way
Inlet Pipe Required Often a Combined Often a Combined
Outlet Pipe Required Inlet and Outlet Pipe Inlet and Outlet Pipe
Uncommon, Uncommon,
Drain Pipe Common
Outlet Pipe Utilized Outlet Pipe Utilized
Anti-Vortex Plate Common Uncommon Uncommon

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Water Quality Concerns

Water storage tanks have been used in pressurized public water systems since the mid-
19th century, and are common around the world. However, in recent decades, there has
been a growing concern for water quality deterioration resulting from storage tanks in
the water distribution system. Potential problems are summarized in Table 1.

Table 4: Potential Water Quality Problems Due to Water Storage Tanks

Physical Chemical Biological
Disinfection By-Product
Thermal Stratification Nitrification
(DBP) Formation
Sediment and Sludge Low Disinfectant Levels Microbial Growth & Biofilm
Corrosion Chemical Contaminants Pathogen Contamination
Taste and Odor

Excessive water age is considered the most important factor related to water quality
deterioration. A long detention time (more than 24 hours) results in “old water” which is
more susceptible to low disinfectant levels, microbial growth, and various chemical
changes. Distribution systems with remote storage tanks are more prone to water age
problems in the most distant tanks. Operational changes can reduce water age to
acceptable levels, such as operating a tank at a lower water level.

Thermal stratification and poor mixing can result in excessive water age in certain zones
within the tank. This can be prevented with a tank mixing system. A computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) model may help indicate if a mixing system is required, as well as
helping to select the best mixing system design.

A water storage tank must be an enclosed and sealed structure, with fine mesh insect
screens on the overflows and vents. Even so, storage tanks are susceptible to
contamination from external debris, biological material, and chemicals. For example, a
tank may develop cracks or be damaged.

To help identify potential contamination or structural problems, tanks are to be

inspected regularly to review wall penetrations, hatches, vents, overflows, roofs, and
walls. Per NFPA 25, tank interiors must be inspected every 3 years for steel tanks
without corrosion protection, and every 5 years for all other tanks.

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Water Storage Tanks

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Over time, there may be a buildup of sediment and sludge on the bottom of a storage
tank, as shown in Figure 13. Sediment may provide a place for bacteriological material
to live and grow, which can result in nitrification, DBP formation, and other water quality
problems. The level of sediment should be reviewed during regular tank inspections,
and excessive sediment should be removed. It is helpful to completely drain and
pressure clean the entire tank interior regularly.

Figure 13: Examples of lime sludge found inside a ground storage tank.
On the left is sludge buildup at a side access port.
On the right is a tank floor with a couple of inches of sludge.

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Water Storage Tanks

A SunCam online continuing education course

Helpful References

Standards for Tank Design and Operation:

Great Lakes Upper Mississippi River Board of State Public Health & Environmental
Managers (2022). “Recommended Standards for Water Works”. (Also known as Ten
States Standards). Albany, NY: Health Education Services.

EPA and AWWA (2002) “Finished Water Storage Facilities”.

Tank Sizing and Design:

Mays, Larry W. (1999) “Water Distribution Systems Handbook”. McGraw-Hill.

AWWA (2013) “Steel Water Storage Tanks”. AWWA Manual M42.

AWWA (2008) “Distribution System Requirements for Fire Protection”. Manual of

Practice M31.

API (2014), “Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks”, API Standard
2000.

Tank Disinfection:

AWWA (2019) “Disinfection of Water Storage Facilities”, AWWA Standard C652.

Tank Inspection:

EPA (2019) “How to Conduct a Sanitary Survey of Drinking Water Systems”, EPA
816-R-17-001.

EPA (2024) “Finished Water Storage Tank Inspection/Cleaning Checklist”, EPA

Region 8. <[Link]/region8-waterops/finished-water-storage-tank-
inspectioncleaning-checklist>

NFPA (2023) “Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-
Based Fire Protection Systems”. NFPA 25.

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