Chapter one: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

1.1 formation of rocks:

• The planet Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago.
• The Earth is made from rocks and metal ores.
• Rock: a combination of one or more minerals.
• Mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic substance with a specific chemical composition.
• The force of gravity pulled the heavier elements together first forming the core, the lighter elements
then formed the Earth’s crust about 3-4 billion years ago.
• The mantle developed as a layer between the dense core and the light crust

Types of rocks:
1. Igneous rocks (contain crystals):
• Igneous rocks are formed when the molten rocks (magma) from the crust and upper
mantle cools.
• Igneous rocks are made of material that was once molten, they usually contain crystals
that are formed as the molten material cool.

Examples of igneous rocks:

a. If the If magma rises from mantle into the crust without reaching the Earth’s
surface, then the magma cools more slowly, allowing the formation of larger
[Link], granite
- Crystals are large enough to be easily seen with the naked eye. (medium- to
coarse-grained).
- Granite has white patches.
b. If the rock cools quickly, small crystals are formed (rapid cooling occurs when
magma is released from volcanoes onto the surface of the earth’s crust). eg, basalt.
- The crystals are so small (<1 mm) that you usually can’t see them with the naked
eye.

2. Sedimentary rocks (crystals absent):

• Sedimentary rocks are formed by weathering of rock particles existing on the Earth’s
surface.
• Ore particles are transported by streams to form sediments (sediments might include
remaining of living matter called fossils).
• Each layer of sediment becomes more compact and harder because of the pressure created
by newer deposits above them. This causes the lowers layers hardens into rocks.
 Examples of sedimentary rocks:
a. Limestone: often looks smooth or fine-grained.
b. Sandstones: Made of sand-sized grains (you can often see/feel the tiny
grains).
c. Shale: Very fine-grained (extremely small or invisible).

3. Metamorphic rocks
• Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks heat or pressure, or both heat and
pressure causes changes in the rock crystals without melting the existing rock.
• The changes in the structure can be chemical or physical or both.
• Sedimentary and igneous rocks can become another metamorphic rocks, and a
metamorphic rock can become another metamorphic rock.
• Metamorphic rocks are usually harder than sedimentary rocks.
Examples of metamorphic rocks:
a. Marble: made of medium to coarse-grained crystals.
b. Slate: very tiny (microscopic) crystals — cannot usually see them with the
naked eye.

• The rock cycle:

Fig.1 the rock cycle

1.2 methods of searching of minerals:
1. Pospecting: looking closely at the surface of the rocks.
2. Remote sensing (Aerial photography): aeroplanes or unmanned drones fly over large areas and
take photographs which can be analysed for signs of minerals.
3. Geochemical analysis: sediment samples are taken from streams or rocks and analysed chemically
in a laboratory for signs of useful minerals. The location of the sample points in the field can be
found accurately using the global positioning system (GPS).
4. Geophysical analysis: by sending seismic vibrations into the ground – the frequency of the
vibrations that are reflected back to sensors on the surface help to identify suitable areas for further
investigation.

1.3 methods of extraction:

1. Surface mining: a type of mining used when the mineral is either exposed on the surface or
overlain by only small amounts of overburden.
Over burden: the rock and soil overlying an economically viable mineral deposit.
• Reasons why open-pit mine (open-cast/open pit) eventually stop being worked:
- The valuable deposit has already been removed and finished.
- The amount of overburden that must be removed becomes so large that mining is
no longer profitable.

Fig.2 surface mining

 • Types of surface mining:
Mine type Advantages Disadvantages
Open pit - Easier access to materials. - Large areas of land damaged,
mining - Large size of mines allow easy looks unsightly
access of machines and workers - Causes a lot of dust and noise
pollution.
- Produces large amounts of waste
rock (spoil).
Strip mining - Easy access to the seams of - Impacts large areas of land.
(coal) minerals (from the surface). - Causes a lot of dust and noise
- Large machines cut into the edge of pollution. Large amounts of spoil
the seam removing minerals (waste rock).
efficiently and quickly.

2. Sub-surface mining: a type of mining used when the deposit is covered by a deep layer.
- It involves digging tunnels into the ground to reach mineral deposits that are too deep to be
removed by surface mining.
- Horizontal tunnels are dug directly into the coal seam in the side of a hill or a mountain
(adit), sloping tunnels are dug to reach deeper deposits and vertical shafts are dug to reach
the deepest deposits.
- Most of the material is removed from mines by machines.
• Compared with open-pit mining:
- More expensive
- It is more difficult because a supply of fresh air and water drainage has to be
provided.
- The danger of collapsing tunnels.
- Risks of poisonous gas.
- Explosions and underground fire.
• Types of sub-surface mining:
Mine type Advantages Disadvantages
Drift mining - Access to seams from sloping - More technically complex than
(sloping tunnel (adit) means less costly than strip or open cast mining
tunnels) making shafts. - There is a risk of tunnel collapse.
- Majority of overburden left in
place.
Shaft mining - Reaches minerals not accessible by - Most expensive method
(vertical shaft) other methods. - Risk of tunnel/shaft collapse
- Less impact of the surface - Poisonous gases, underground
ecosystem (although still produces fires and explosions
waste heaps)
 Fig.3 surface mining VS sub-surface mining

1.4 Factors affecting the validity of extraction of minerals:

1. Geology:
• The position of the deposits/The depth of the minerals within the soil: deeper deposits can
be extracted by sub-surface mining, the cost per tonne will be higher than surface mining.
Only deposits of high value can be mined economically in this way. The stability of the
rock will affect the choice of method used as well.

2. Environmental impact:
• Surface mining: causes a large impact on the local area, requiring the removal of:
- Topsoil which destroys the habitat of local plants and animals.
- Overburden and creating large, visible scars in the landscape. This would impact on
other industries and local communities.
• Sub-surface mining will have some impact on the local environment, but much of the
works will be underground, lessening the impact on local vegetation, etc. The leaching of
materials into water supplies would also be an impact. Much will depend on the local
situation as to which method has the greatest impact.
 3. Size and quality of the deposit:
• High-grade ores will yield more of the required chemicals than low-grade ores.
• Small deposits of high-value ores maybe worth mining, whereas small deposits of low-
grade ore may cannot be mind at a profit re left as known reserves to be mined in the
future if technical advances make it less costly to do so.
4. Supply and demand:
• If the world price remains high, then deposits that could not previously be mined at a
profit becomes worth mining.
• If the world price falls because of a drop in demand, a new mine may not start working at
a profit. Only when the world price rises again can a new mine become profitable.
5. Market price for the minerals:
• Surface mining is often the cheapest method, as is the use of explosives to break up
rock. Both of these are likely to have greater environmental impacts than other methods.
• Both of these are likely to have greater environmental impacts than other methods. If the
minerals are too expensive to extract, and the company will make a loss by doing so,
then they are unlikely to mine at this site (impacting on local employment, etc.).

1.5 Factors affecting the validity of extraction of minerals:

1. Environmental impact:
a. Ecological impact: any mining activity leads to habitat loss for some species of plants and
animals.
Types of mining Impact
Small-scale surface - requires vegetation to be cleared.
mining - Plants lose their place to grow.
- Animals that depend on these plants for food and shelter
lose their habitat.
Large-scale surface - Large areas of vegetation are removed.
mining - Large volumes of overburden (waste rock/soil) must be
stored.
- After mining, overburden is spread back to restore the
land.
- New vegetation grows, but biodiversity is lower than the
original.
- As a result, some habitats for plants and animals remain
lost for many years, even after land restoration.

Deep mining - Requires digging shafts down to mineral seams.

- Initially, only a small area of vegetation is cleared.
- Over time, more habitats are destroyed as mine waste
accumulates aboveground.
b. Pollution:
Type of pollution Impact
1. Noise pollution - Explosives used to loosen overburden.
(More severe in large-scale surface - Large machines remove overburden.
mining and produces less noise in - Disturbs behaviour of animals nearby.
deep mining) - Can cause health problems for people.

2. Water pollution ❖ Causes:

(Can continue many years after - Caused by drainage through mine
mining stops.) waste or shafts.
- Chemical reactions between water,
exposed rocks, and mine waste.
❖ Effects:
- Water becomes acidic, dissolving
toxic metal ions.
- Acidic water + toxic metal ions kills
aquatic organisms.
- Drinking water supplies may become
unsafe.

3. Land pollution - Surrounding land polluted by mine

waste.
- Sometimes limited to small areas, but
highly toxic.
- Soil may only support a few plant
species, even many years after mining
stops.

4. Air pollution (dust) - Dust from mining settles on plants and

reduces photosynthesis.
- Toxic dust can reduce or stop plant
growth.
- Dust is dangerous if breathed in, stays in
lungs.
- Long-term exposure causes lung disease,
can cause death.
- Children’s lungs are especially
vulnerable.
- Some harmful substances absorbed
through skin.
- Mining companies provide safety
clothing and breathing equipment.
5. noise pollution - Some animals may move away.
 ❖ How reduced plant growth can affect an ecosystem:
- Plants are producers that make the food all organisms in the ecosystem rely on.
Reduced growth means less food for herbivores and, in turn for carnivores.
- They provide habitat to other organisms.
- Reduction in the ability of the plant to protect the soil (erosion).

❖ Illegal mining (without a license) is bad for people and environment.

For people:
- Safety requirements will have been ignored
- Health problems are common because of toxic substances.
- Masks are needed to protect health, but not always used.
For environment:
- Mining damages the landscape → this is visual pollution.
- Large-scale surface mining creates the most obvious visual pollution.
- Pollution may only be temporary, but restoration is needed.

c. Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification:

- Pollution is caused by chemical reactions between water, exposed rocks, and mine waste.
- Water may become acidic and dissolve toxic metal ions.
- Acidic water with high concentrations of toxic metal ions kills many aquatic organisms.
- Some metal ions exist only in low concentrations in bodies of water.
- Organisms absorb these ions and retain them in their bodies, reaching higher
concentrations than in the water → this is bioaccumulation.
- Concentrations increase further in organisms that are higher up the food chain → this is
biomagnification.
- Biomagnification can cause the death of top consumers.
- Some metal ions are toxic in high concentrations but do not bioaccumulate.
2. Economic impact:
- Mineral extraction provides employment and taxes.
- Modern mining uses machines so only a small number are directly employed, but more
jobs are created if the mineral is refined and processed in the same country.
- Minerals are often exported, creating jobs in the country importing the mineral.
- Mineral extraction benefits local and national economies through jobs in extraction,
transport and mining equipment.
- Income and taxes support infrastructure projects, and improvements in transport,
healthcare and education; some improvements are paid for by mining companies.
1.6 Managing the impact of rock and mineral extraction:
1. Safe disposal of mining waste:
- Safe storage and disposal are required in a mining licence application.
- Applications must show a plan to
a. prevent collapse and water pollution
b. Include monitoring for movement or pollution.

2. Land restoration:
• Land restoration: Mine waste is reshaped, covered with overburden and then topped with
topsoil which may be fertilised, and planted with trees → helps plants and animals
colonise; soil improves with organic matter.
• Bioremediation: the process of removing toxic chemicals from a natural site using living
things, it can be:
a. In situ treatment: treatment of contaminated waste where it’s left.
b. Ex situ treatment: treatment of contaminated waste from a site to a treatment plant.
• Nature reserves: Treated land may be turned into reserves → tree and herb species create
habitats, support biodiversity, and provide green spaces for recreation.
• Large holes: If rock lining is impervious and nontoxic, holes may form reservoirs for
irrigation or drinking water; sometimes used as landfill then covered with soil and trees.

1.7 Sustainable use of rocks and minerals:

Sustainable use: Meeting present needs without affecting future generations.
- The aim is planned and controlled use to benefit people, maintain economic growth, and
prevent environmental damage.
- With increasing world population, complete sustainability is difficult.
Strategies for More Sustainable Exploitation:
1. Efficiency of Extraction:
Ways of Increasing the efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals:
- Mine waste can be processed a second time (recovers valuable materials + reduces
pollution.)
- Chemical treatment of waste.
- Biological treatment with microorganisms.
- Machine performance improvements also increase efficiency.
- Computer data analysis may further improve extraction.

2. Efficiency of use and recycling:

Ways of Increasing the efficiency of use and recycling:
- Recycling uses less energy than processing the ores.
- Recycling also produces less waste and thus, reduces the risk of pollution.
- Can create jobs.
Legislation:
The governments pass laws that require manufacturers to become responsible for recycling
and reuse.