Chapter 1

Fuels and Combustion

Various type of fuels like liquid, solid and gaseous fuels are available for firing in combustion
equipment like boilers, furnaces etc. The selection of right type of fuel depends on the
various factors such as availability, storage, handling, pollution and landed cost of fuel.
The knowledge of the fuel properties helps in selecting the right fuel for the right purpose
and efficient use of the fuel. The following characteristics, determined by laboratory tests, are
generally used for assessing the nature and quality of fuels.
Properties of Liquid
Fuels

Density
Density is the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a reference temperature
typically 15°C. The knowledge of density is useful for quantity calculations and assessing
ignition quality. The unit of density is kg/m3.
Specific gravity
This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight of the same
volume of water at a given temperature. Higher the specific gravity, higher is the heating
value
Properties of Liquid Fuels
Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity depends on
temperature and decreases as the temperature increases. Viscosity is measured in Stokes /
Centistokes, Engler, Saybolt & Redwood
Flash Point
The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the
vapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it. Flash point for
furnace oil is 660C.
Properties of Liquid Fuels
Pour Point
The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled
under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest temperature at which
fuel oil is readily pump able
Calorific Value
The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is measured either
as gross calorific value or net calorific value
Properties of Liquid Fuels
The following conversion formula shows the difference between GCV and NCV.
GCV = NCV + 584 ((9H2% + M%) / 100)
Where,
GCV= Gross calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg
NCV = Net calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg
H2%= Hydrogen % by weight present in the fuel
M% = Moisture % by weight present in the fuel
584 = Latent heat corresponding to partial pressure of water vapour, kCal/kg
Properties
of fuel
Storage of Fuel oil
A better practice is to store it in cylindrical tanks, either above or below the ground.
The sizing of storage tank facility is very important. A recommended storage estimate is to
provide for at least 10days of normal consumption. Industrial heating fuel storage tanks are
generally vertical mild steel tanks mounted above ground. It is prudent for safety and
environmental reasons to build bund walls around tanks to contain accidental spillages.
Pumping
• Heavy fuel oils are best pumped using positive displacement pumps, as they are
able to get fuel moving when it is cold
• A circulation gear pump running on LDO should give between 7000-10000 hours
of service
• Diaphragm pump save a shorter service life, but are easier and less expensive to
repair.
• A centrifugal pump is not recommended, because as the oil viscosity increases, the
efficiency of the pump drops sharply and the horse power required increases.
Properties of Coal

Coal Classification:
• Peat
• Lignite
• Bituminous
• Anthracite
Properties of Coal

properties of coal are broadly classified as

• Physical properties
• Chemical properties
Physical Properties
Heating Value
The heating value of coal varies from country to country and even from mine to mine
within the same country.
 Proximate analysis

Proximate
Determines the chemical composition of
coal in terms of moisture, volatile matter,
ash, and fixed carbon. This analysis is

Analysis used to establish the rank of coals,

determine their suitability for industrial
use, and evaluate them for various
purposes.
 Proximate Analysis
Fixed carbon
Fixed carbon is the solid fuel left in the furnace after volatile matter is distilled off. It consists
mostly of carbon but also contains some hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen not driven
off with the gases. Fixed carbon gives a rough estimate of heating value of coal.
Volatile Matter
Volatile matters are the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and
incombustible gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal. Thus the volatile matter is an
index of the gaseous fuels present.
• Proportionately increases flame length and helps in easier ignition of coal.
• Sets minimum limit on the furnace height and volume.
• Influences secondary air requirement and distribution aspects.
Ash Content
Ash is an impurity that will not burn
• Affects combustion and boiler efficiency
• Causes clinkering and slagging
• Ash reduces handling and burning capacity.
Moisture Content
Moisture in coal must be transported, handled and stored.
• It replaces combustible matter so it decreases the heat content per kg of coal.
• Increases heat loss, due to evaporation and superheating of vapor
Ultimate analysis
Ultimate analysis
Determines the elemental composition of coal in terms of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
sulfur, and ash. This analysis is used to calculate the heat output of coal.
Relationship Between Ultimate Analysis and Proximate Analysis
%C=0.97C+ 0.7(VM - 0.1A) - M(0.6-0.01M)
%H=0.036C + 0.086 (VM -0.1xA) - 0.0035M2 (1-0.02M)
%N2=2.10 -0.020 VM
Sample Ultimate Analysis
Report
Properties of
Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuels in common use are liquefied petroleum gases (LPG), Natural gas,
producer gas, blast furnace gas, coke oven gas etc.
The calorific value of gaseous fuel is expressed in Kilocalories per cubic meter
(kcal/Nm3) i.e. at normal temperature and pressure.
Since most gas combustion appliances cannot utlilize the heat content of the
water vapor, gross calorific value is of little interest. Fuel should be compared
based on the net calorific value.
Combustion
Combustion refers to the rapid
oxidation of fuel accompanied by
the production of heat, or heat
and light. Complete combustion
of a fuel is possible only in the
presence of an adequate supply of
oxygen. Oxygen (O2) is one of the
most common elements on earth
making up 20.9% (by volume) of
our air.
 1. TIME -
When a fuel is being burned, it is important that sufficient time is available so that
the fuel burns completely.

3 Ts of 2. TEMPERATURE -
During the combustion, if the temperature is not sufficiently high, fuel will take
combustion some time to ignite thus increasing the time of the combustion. This will affect the
heat output.
3. TURBULENCE -

If the fuel and air are mixed in swirling paths, instead of each flowing in
streamlined paths, combustion will be greatly improved because the mixing of fuel
and air is more complete
Degree of Combustion
Optimizing Excess Air and
Combustion
For complete combustion of every one kg of fuel oil 14.1 kg of air is needed. In practice, mixing is
never perfect, a certain amount of excess air is needed to complete combustion
and ensure that release of the entire heat contained in fuel oil.
If too much air than what is required for completing combustion were allowed to enter, additional heat
would be lost in heating the surplus air to the chimney temperature. This would result in increased
stack losses.
Less air would lead to the incomplete combustion and smoke. Hence, there is an optimum excess air
level for each type of fuel.
For optimum combustion of fuel oil, the CO2 or O2 in flue gases should be maintained at 14-15% in
case of CO2 and 2-3% in case of O2 measurement.
Clinker formation
Clinker is a mass of rough, hard, slag-like material formed during combustion
of coat due to low fusion temperature of ash present in coal. Presence of
silica, calcium oxide, magnesium oxides etc. in ash lead to a low fusion
temperature. Typically Bangladeshi coals contain ash fusion temperature as
low as 1400oC. Once clinker is formed, it has a tendency to grow. Clinker will
stick to a hot surface rather than a cold one and to a rough surface rather
than a smooth one.
Burner
The burner is the principal device for the firing of the fuel.
The primary function of burner is to atomise fuel to millions
of small droplets so that the surface area of the fuel is
increased enabling intimate contact with oxygen in air. The
finer the fuel drop lets are atomised, more readily will the
particles come in contact with the oxygen in the air and
burn.

Normally, atomization is carried out by primary air and

completion of combustion is ensured by secondary air.
Burners for fuel oil can be classified on a basis of the
technique to prepare the fuel for burning i.e. atomization.
Turndown ratio
Turn down ratio is the relationship between the maximum and minimum fuel input without
affecting the excess air level. For example, a burner whose maximum input is 250,000 kcal
and minimum rate is 50,000 kcal, has a ‘Turn-Down Ratio’ of 5 to1.
Calculation of Stoichiometric Air
Calculation of Stoichiometric Air
Calculation of Stoichiometric Air
Calculation of Stoichiometric Air
Problems
1. For combustion of 500 kg/hr of natural gas containing 100% methane,
calculate the percentage of CO2 in the flue gas while 15% excess air is
supplied.
2. Calculate the air fuel ratio for burning LPG composing of 40% Propane &
60% Butane.
3. For combustion of 500 L/Hr of furnace oil, estimate the combustion air
quantity per hour with 20% excess air. Specific gravity of furnace oil is
0.95. Ultimate analysis report of fuel C-84%, H2-12%, S-3%, O2-1%
 A boiler is an enclosed vessel
that provides a means of same
anchor combustion heat to be
transferred into water until it
becomes heated water or a
steam. The steam or hot water
under pressure is then usable for
transfer ring the heat to a process

Chapter 2
Bangladeshi Boiler Regulation
The following points are important regarding the definition of boiler as per
the Boilers Act,
i. It must be a ‘Closed vessel’
ii. It must generate steam for ‘external use’
iii. Volume of vessel must be over ‘22.76 Litres’
iv. Working pressure more than 1.0 kg/cm2
BOILER
ROOM
SCHEMATIC
FIRE TUBE
BOILER
FIRE TUBE BOILER
Design and Construction
• Fire Tubes: Hot gases flow through tubes surrounded by water. Heat transfer occurs from the
hot gases to the water, generating steam.
• Simple Design: The construction is straightforward, making it easy to install and maintain.
• Compact Size: Fire tube boilers are compact and suitable for small to medium-sized plants
Pressure Range
• Operates at lower pressures compared to water tube boilers, generally up to 20 bar (290 psi).
• Suitable for applications requiring moderate pressure and steam generation.
FIRE TUBE BOILER
Efficiency

• Relatively lower thermal efficiency compared to water tube boilers.

• Efficiency can be improved with better insulation and the addition of economizers or air preheaters.

Steam Production

• Suitable for small to medium steam demands.

• Typically used in industries like food processing, laundries, small power plants, and heating systems.

•Maintenance
•Easy to clean and maintain due to accessible tubes.
 FIRE TUBE BOILER
Response to Load Changes
• Slower response to load changes compared to water tube boilers.
• Ideal for steady steam production rather than fluctuating demands.
Fuel Flexibility
• Can use various fuels, including coal, natural gas, oil, and biomass.
Safety
• Operates at relatively low pressure, reducing the risk of explosion.
•Equipped with safety devices like pressure relief valves, water level indicators, and alarms.
Cost
•Lower initial and operating costs compared to water tube boilers.
WATER TUBE
BOILER
WATER TUBE BOILER

1. Design and Construction

• Water Tubes: Water flows through tubes that are surrounded by hot gases from combustion. Heat
transfer occurs from the hot gases to the water.
• Complex Design: More intricate than fire tube boilers, involving headers, drums, and tubing
systems.
• Large Size: Typically larger than fire tube boilers, suitable for industrial and power plant
applications.
Pressure Range
• Operates at high pressures, often exceeding 30 bar (435 psi) and can go up to several hundred
bars.
• Ideal for applications requiring superheated steam and very high pressure.
 WATER TUBE BOILER
Efficiency
• Higher thermal efficiency compared to fire tube boilers.
• Better heat transfer due to higher surface area contact between water and gases.
Steam Production
• Capable of producing large quantities of steam.
• Designed for high-capacity systems, including power generation, refineries, and large-scale industrial
processes.
Response to Load Changes
• Faster response to load changes due to smaller water volume.
• Suitable for fluctuating steam demand scenarios.
WATER TUBE BOILER

Fuel Flexibility
• Can use various fuels like coal, oil, natural gas, biomass, and even waste heat.
• Advanced designs may incorporate dual or multi-fuel system
Safety
• Operates at high pressures, making safety a critical concern.
• Equipped with advanced safety features, including pressure relief valves, water level
alarms, and automated controls.
WATER TUBE BOILER

Maintenance
• Requires skilled personnel for maintenance due to complex design.
• Tubes are prone to scaling and fouling, requiring regular cleaning and inspection.
Cost
• Higher initial cost due to complex design and materials.
• Operating costs may also be higher, but efficiency offsets this for large-scale applications.
ONCE THROUGH
BOILER
Feed water from the bottom header, evaporating
it in water tubes, and taking out steams from the
top header. In this type of boiler the water flow is
only one way.
Effects of using once through boiler are;
1. High efficiency: Boiler efficiency of 98％
2. Stable steam pressure: ±0.01MPa with static
load
3. Long life: Designed to last for 15 years
Solid Fuel fired
boilers

Chain-Grate or Traveling-Grate
Stoker Boiler
Solid Fuel
fired boilers

Spreader Stoker
Boiler
Pulverized
Fuel Boiler
FBC Boiler
 Super Critical
Boiler
The critical point corresponds to a pressure of
221.2 bar absolute and a temperature of
374.18 °C.
• Higher heat transfer rate
• More flexible in accepting load variation
• Greater ease of operation
• High thermal efficiency (40-42% of power
generating stations)
• The absence of two-phase mixer minimise
the problems of erosion and corrosion
• Steadier pressure level
Performance Evaluation of Boilers
Boiler
efficiency
Evaluation

Indirect
Direct Method
Method
 Direct Method
This is also known as ‘input-output method’
due to the fact that it needs only the useful
output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel)
for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency
can be evaluated using the formula.
Pros & Cons of Direct Method
Advantages:
• Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers
• Requires few parameters for computation
• Needs few instruments for monitoring
Disadvantages:
• Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is lower
• Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels
Indirect method also called as heat loss method. The efficiency can be
arrived at, by
subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100.
There are reference standards for Boiler Testing at Site using indirect method
namely British Standard, BS845:1987 and USA Standard is ‘ASME PTC-4.1
Power Test Code Steam Generating Units’.
 • Loss of heat due to dry flue gas

• Loss of heat due to moisture in fuel and combustion air

The principle
losses that
• Loss of heat due to combustion of hydrogen
occur in a
boiler are:
• Loss of heat due to radiation

• Loss of heat due to un burnt

Calculation
of loss due
to flue gas
Excess air
calculation
Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of
water formed due to H2 in fuel
Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of
moisture present in fuel
Percentage heat loss due to moisture
present in air
Percentage heat
loss due to partial
conversion of C to
CO
Loss due to Unburnt Carbon
Indirect method efficiency
Efficiency of Boiler=100%-(Summation of all the
losses calculated)
Boiler Evaporation Ratio
Evaporation ratio means kilogram of steam generated per kilogram of fuel consumed.
Evaporation ratio monitoring is best suited for any boiler when its own performance is
compared on day to day basis as a performance indicator
• Biomass fired boilers : 2.0 to 3.0
• Coal fired boilers : 4.0 to 5.5
• Oil fired boilers : 13.5 to 14.5
• Gas fired boilers : 11.0 to 13.0
Boiler
Blowdown
Boiler blowdown is the process of
removing water with concentrated
impurities from a boiler to
maintain optimal water quality and
prevent scaling or damage.
Importance of Blow Down
Boiler water impurities depend on feed water quality, treatment processes, and operating
procedures, with high-pressure boilers being more sensitive. As water evaporates into
steam, dissolved solids concentrate, leading to foaming, carryover, scaling, and
overheating, which can cause tube failure. To manage this, blowdown removes a portion
of water to control total dissolved solids (TDS) and protect heat exchanger surfaces.
However, improper blowdown can lead to significant heat losses.
Recommended TDS level for
different boilers
Blowdown
heat recovery
system
Quantity of blow down required
Effect of Silica in feed water
• The presence of silica in boiler water can rise to formation of hard silicate
scales.
• It can also associate with calcium and magnesium salts, forming calcium
and magnesium silicates of very low thermal conductivity.
• Silica can give rise to deposits on steam turbine blades, after been carried
over either in droplets of water in steam, or in volatile form in steam at
higher pressures.
 Boiler Water
Treatment

Internal External
treatment Treatment
Internal
Treatment
Internal treatment is carried out by
adding chemicals to boiler to prevent the
formation of scale by converting the
scale-forming compounds to free-flowing
sludge’s, which can be removed by blow
down. This method is limited to boilers,
where feed water is low in hardness salts,
to low pressures
External Water Treatment
(Pretreatment)

Aeration Sand
Clarifier
tower filter
Post treatment & Demineralization

Ultra
filtration 1st Pass RO 2nd Pass RO
(Softening)
De-aeration
In de-aeration, dissolved gases, such as
oxygen and carbon dioxide, are expelled by
preheating the feed water before it enters the
boiler.
All natural waters contain dissolved gases in
solution. Certain gases, such as carbon
dioxide and oxygen, greatly increase
corrosion. When heated in boiler systems,
carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) are
released as gases and combine with water
(H2O) to form carbonic acid, (H2CO3). This
can lead to corrosion and damage to boiler.
So Deaeration is very important.
Energy Conservation Opportunities in
Boiler
• Stack Temperature
Stack temperature should be kept low but above the condensation point to avoid corrosion,
especially with sulfur-containing fuels. Temperatures above 200°C suggest waste heat
recovery potential or scaling in heat transfer equipment, requiring cleaning or maintenance.
• Feed Water Preheating using Economizer
Modern 3-pass shell boilers emit flue gases at 200–300°C, offering potential for heat
recovery. Flue gas temperatures are kept above 200°C to avoid sulfur condensation and
corrosion, except with clean fuels like natural gas or LPG, where temperatures may be lower.
Energy Conservation Opportunities in
Boiler
• Combustion Air Pre heat
Combustion air preheating is an alternative to feed water heating. In order to improve thermal
efficiency by 1%, the combustion air temperature must be raised by 200C
• Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion occurs due to insufficient air, excess fuel, or poor fuel-air mixing,
often indicated by smoke or CO emissions. For oil and gas systems, issues like improper
viscosity, worn tips, or diffuser deterioration can cause inefficiencies. In coal systems,
unburned carbon leads to significant heat loss, influenced by factors like fuel size, air
distribution, and stoker or grate condition. Proper maintenance and regulation are essential to
minimize these losses.
Energy Conservation Opportunities in
Boiler
• Excess Air Control
Excess air is required in all practical cases to ensure complete combustion, to allow for the
normal variations in combustion and to ensure satisfactory stack conditions for some fuels.
The optimum excess air level for maximum boiler efficiency occurs when the sum of the
losses due to incomplete combustion and loss due to heat in flue gases is minimum.
• Radiation and Convection Heat Loss
The external surfaces of a shell boiler are hotter than the surroundings. The surfaces thus
lose heat to the surroundings depending on the surface area and the difference in
temperature between the surface and the surroundings.
Energy Conservation Opportunities in
Boiler
• Automatic Blow down control
Uncontrolled continuous blow down is very wasteful. Automatic blow down controls can be
installed that sense and respond to boiler water conductivity and pH. A 10% blow down in a
15 kg/cm2 boiler results in 3% efficiency loss.
• Reduction of Scaling and Soot losses
In oil and coal-fired boilers, soot build upon tubes acts as an insulator against heat transfer.
Any such deposits should be removed on a regular basis. Elevated stack temperatures may
indicate excessive soot build-up.
Energy Conservation Opportunities in
Boiler
Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and Pumps
Variable speed control improves energy efficiency, unlike throttling dampers, which are less
accurate and effective across the operating range. For boilers with variable load, replacing
dampers with VSDs should be considered.
Effect of Boiler Loading on Efficiency
The maximum efficiency of the boiler does not occur at full load, but at about two-thirds of
the full load.
 Problem
A textile plant is using furnace oil as fuel for firing in the boiler, generating steam on an average of
30T/hr. The unit has decided to switch over to natural gas as fuel to concern for emissions reduction.
The boiler feed water temperature is 60oC and the enthalpy of steam is 660 kCal/kg. The other data
are as under:
Natural Gas:
Furnace oil:
Gross Calorific value of Natural gas : 9500kCal/ (Sm3)
GCV of furnace oil : 10200kCal/kg
Density of natural gas : 0.8kg/Sm3
%Carbon in furnace oil : 84
% carbon in natural gas : 74
Efficiency of furnace oil : 82% Annual operating hrs. : 8000
Calculate the Reduction in GHG emissions? Efficiency of natural gas boiler : 86%
Problem
Oil fired Boiler is generating 100 TPH of steam at 85% efficiency, operating 330
days in a year. Management has installed a water treatment plant at Bangladeshi
Taka (BDT) 1.16Crore investment for reducing the TDS in boiler feed from 450
ppm to 150 ppm. The maximum permissible limit of TDS in the boiler is 3000
ppm and make up water is 10%. Temperature of blow down water is 175°C and
boiler feed water temperature is 45°C. Calorific value of Fuel oil is 1200 kCal/kg.
Calculate the payback period if the cost of fuel is 23150 BDT / Ton.
Chapter 3 Steam System
Steam system
Steam has been a popular mode of conveying energy since the industrial revolution. Steam
is used for generating power and also used in process industries such as sugar, paper,
fertilizer, refineries, petrochemicals, chemical, food, synthetic fibre and textiles. The following
characteristics of steam make it so popular and useful to the industry:
• Highest specific heat and latent heat
• Highest heat transfer coefficient
• Easy to control and distribute
• Cheap and inert
Why Steam ?
Heating with Hot Water or Oil
• Utilizes the sensible heat
• Temperature changes
• Energy released (typicallyaround17kcal/kg,or30Btu/lb).

Heating with Steam

• Utilizes the latent heat
• Temperature constant (so higher heat transfer)
• Energy released (upto539kcal/kg,or970Btu/lb).
Steam Distribution System

Disadvantages: The risk of damage from erosion or carbonic acid corrosion

The Steam
Phase
Diagram
Enthalpy of steam
Enthalpy or total heat of dry saturated steam is given by:
hg=hf +hfg
Enthalpy of wet steam

htotal=hf+Xhfg, where X is the quality factor of steam

Steam
Distribution
System
Steam Distribution System

The following factors have to be considered in the design of a good Steam Distribution
System.
• General Layout
• Pipe sizing and Design
• Pressure Reducing and De-superheating Station
• Air Venting (as given in sub-section 3.7)
• Steam Pipe Insulation
 The working pressure of steam
distribution system
The distribution pressure of steam is influenced by a number of factors, but is limited by:
• The maximum safe working pressure of the boiler.
• The minimum pressure required at the plant.
As steam passes through the distribution pipework, it will inevitably lose pressure due to:
• Frictional resistance within the pipework.
• Condensation within the pipework as heat is transferred to the environment.
Therefore, allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding upon the initial distribution
pressure.
A kilogram of steam at a higher pressure occupies less volume than at a lower pressure. It follows that, if
steam is generated in the boiler at a high pressure and also distributed at a high pressure, the size of the
distribution mains will be smaller than that for a low-pressure system for the same heat load.
 The working pressure of steam
distribution system
Generating and distributing steam at higher pressure offers three important advantages:
•The thermal storage capacity of the boiler is increased, helping it to cope more efficiently with
fluctuating loads, minimizing the risk of producing wet and dirty steam.
•Smaller bore steam mains are required, resulting in lower capital cost, for materials such as pipes,
flanges, supports and labor.
•Smaller bore steam mains cost less to insulate.
Utilizing Steam at the Lowest Acceptable Pressure for the Process
As a guide, the steam should always be generated and distributed at the highest possible
pressure, but utilized at a low pressure as possible since it has higher latent heat.
Steam Pipe Sizing and Design
In practice whether for water pipes or steam pipes, a balance is drawn between pipe size
and pressure loss. The steam piping should be sized, based on permissible velocity and the
available pressure drop in the line. Selecting a higher pipe size will reduce the pressure
drop and thus the energy cost. However, higher pipe size will increase the initial
installation cost. By use of smaller pipe size, even though the installation cost can be
reduced, the energy cost will increase due to higher-pressure drop. It is to be noted that the
pressure drop change will be inversely proportional to the 5th power of diameter change.
Hence, care should be taken in selecting the optimum pipe size.
 Steam Pipe Sizing and Design
The objective of the steam distribution system is to supply steam at the correct pressure to
the point of use. It follows therefore, that pressure drop through the distribution system is
an important feature.
Proper sizing of steam pipelines help in minimizing pressure drop. The velocities for
various types of steam are:

Superheated 50-70 m/sec

Saturated 30-40 m/sec
Wet or Exhaust 20-30 m/sec
Method for pipe sizing

Steam pipe
sizing

Velocity Pressure
method loss method
Velocity method:
Frictional loss calculation

hf = Head loss to friction (m)

f = Friction factor (dimensionless), usually obtained from charts
L = Length (m)
u = Flow velocity (m/s)
g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/s²)
D = Pipe diameter (m)
Problem
1. A process requires 5000 kg/h of dry saturated steam at 7 kg/cm2 (g). For the flow velocity

not to exceed 25 m/s, determine the pipe size.

2. Determine the difference in pressure between two points 1 km apart in a 150 mm bore
horizontal pipework system. The water flow rate is 45 m³/h at 15°C and the friction factor
for this pipe is taken as 0.005.
Pressure loss method
Pressure
loss method
Oversized pipework means:
Pipes, valves, fittings, etc. will be more expensive than necessary.
Higher installation costs will be incurred, including support work, insulation, etc.
For steam pipes a greater volume of condensate will be formed due to the greater heat loss.
This, in turn, means that either:
-More steam trapping is required, or
-Wet steam is delivered to the point of use.
Undersized pipework means:
A lower pressure might be available at the point of use, which may hinder equipment
performance.
There is a risk of steam starvation due to an excessive pressure drop.
There is a greater risk of erosion, water hammerand noise due to the inherent increase in steam
velocity.
The cost of installing 80 mm steam pipework was found to be 44% higher than the cost of 50 mm
pipework, which would have had adequate capacity.
The heat lost by the insulated pipework was some 21% higher from the 80 mm pipeline than
it would have been from the 50 mm pipework. Any non-insulated parts of the 80 mm pipe
would lose 50% more heat than the 50 mm pipe, due to the extra heat transfer surface area.
Factors for good design of steam
distribution system
• Proper layout design & pipe sizing of mains
• Piping always pitched in the direction of flow
• Use of eccentric reducers to eliminate creation of condensate collection points (low spots) in piping
• Use of separators to eliminate wet steam
• Proper drip trap stations in all required locations
• Use of air vents at all end-of-main locations
• Make steam main branch take-offs from top of pipe
• Use of pressure reducing valves as needed or desired (Pressure reducing & de-superheating)
• Put strainers before control valves, traps, and pumps
• Steam pipe insulation
Steam mains and drainage
piping layout
Steam mains
and drainage
piping layout
A steam trap should be set at the bottom
of vertical piping sections because dis-
entrained condensate can accumulate
there due to gravity and directional
changes.
Traps In Front of Pressure
Reducing Valves and Control
Valves
A steam trap should be installed
immediately before pressure
reducing valves / control valves to
prevent condensate from pooling
when the valve is closed. The trap
also helps reduce erosion of the
valve seat from condensate.
Proper suppoert & inclined steam pipe At the end of steam distribution lines, it is
important to remove the air that was initially
line is required present in the piping at start-up.
Branch pipe
connection
Use of
strainers
Reducers &
Expansion
loops
De-super heating
A reduction in steam pressure through a
pressure reducing valve (PRV) is an
isenthalpic process. Saturated steam,
when reduced to a lower pressure, results
in superheated steam. Since the process
requires only saturated steam,
desuperheating is often required to
compensate for the superheat gained in
the PRV application due to isenthalpic
expansion.
Liquid
expansion trap
It is sometimes necessary to lift
condensate from a steam trap to a
higher level condensate return line .
The condensate will rise up the lifting
pipe work when the steam pressure
upstream of the trap is higher than
the pressure downstream of the trap.
Condensate
Recovery
Importance of condensate recovery:
Steam condenses after releasing latent
heat in process equipment, with about
25% of the total heat exiting as hot water.
Returning this hot water to the boiler
reduces fuel consumption—approximately
1% for every 6°C rise in feedwater
temperature. Condensate, being pure,
requires minimal chemical treatment,
unlike boiler water. Maximizing
condensate return significantly lowers
water treatment costs and improves
efficiency
Flash steam
recovery
Flash steam from a high pressure
system is recovered into a flash
tank and reused as steam in a low
pressure system.
Flash steam recovery
The flash steam quantity can be calculated by the following formula & with the help of a
steam table:
Flash
steam
recovery
Thermo
Compressor
In many of the steam utilization
equipment where condensate comes out
at high pressure, a major portion of it
flashes into low pressure steam which
goes wasted. Using a thermo
compressor it becomes feasible to
compress this low pressure steam by high
pressure steam and reuse it as a medium
pressure steam in the process.
Thermo Compressor Advantages
• No condensation losses take place
• Thermal efficiency of the system is extremely high
• Entrainment of low pressure steam results is substantial savings
• No moving parts and hence maintenance needs are minimal
• No major operational charges
• Low space requirement
• Insensitive to fouling
• High operating reliability
Steam Pipe Insulation
Advantages
•Conserve energy by reducing heat loss
•Facilitate temperature control of a process
•Prevent condensation of steam
•Prevent or reduce damage to pipe from exposure to fire or corrosive atmospheres
•Control surface temperature for personal protection and comfort
 Minimizing Heat
Transfer Barriers
Filmwise condensation: The condensate film may
be between 100 and 150 times more resistant to
heat transfer than a steel heating surface, and 500
to 600 times more resistant than copper.
Dropwise condensation :As a larger proportion of
the heat transfer surface is exposed during
dropwise condensation, heat transfer coefficients
may be up to ten times greater than those for
filmwise condensation.
Air Film: As air is such a good insulator, it provides
even more resistance to heat transfer. Air may be
between 1 500 and 3 000 times more resistant to
heat flow than steel, and 8 000 to 16 000 more
resistant than copper.
 Steam Trap
Functions of Steam Traps
The three important functions of
steam traps are:
•To discharge condensate as soon
as it is formed
•Not to allow steam to escape.
•To be capable of discharging air
and other incondensable gases.
Inverted bucket
type steam trap
Advantages of the inverted bucket steam trap
• The inverted bucket steam trap can be made
to withstand high pressures.
• Like a float-thermostatic steam trap, it has a
good tolerance to water hammer conditions.
• Can be used on superheated steam lines with
the addition of a check valve on the inlet.
• Failure mode is usually open, so it's safer on
those applications that require this feature, for
example turbine drains.
Float-
thermostatic trap
In many ways the float-thermostatic
trap is the closest to an ideal steam
trap. It will discharge condensate as
soon as it is formed, regardless of
changes in steam pressure. Float
and Thermostatic traps are an
economical solution for light-to-
medium condensate loads and
lower pressures
 Thermodynamic
trap
The thermodynamic trap is an
extremely robust steam trap with
a simple mode of operation. The
trap operates by means of the
dynamic effect of flash steam as
it passes through the trap. The
only moving part is the disc
above the flat face inside the
control chamber or cap.
 Bimetallic steam traps operate on the same
principle as a heating thermostat
Advantages of the bimetallic steam trap

Bimetallic trap • Relatively small size for the condensate

loads they handle
• Resistance to damage from water hammer

A disadvantage is that they must be set,

generally at the plant, for a particular steam
operating pressure. If the trap is used for a
lower pressure, it may discharge live steam.
Trap selection
Steam trap
installation
Steam trap
installation
Steam trap testing
Steam trap testing
Energy Saving Opportunities
[Link] Dry Steam for Process
[Link] Steam at the Lowest Acceptable Pressure for the Process
[Link] generating and distribution use high pressure steam
[Link] and condensate pipe sizing should be proper
[Link] and condensate line layout and component utilization should be proper
[Link] station along with de-superheating should be proper
[Link] designed condensate recovery system
Energy Saving Opportunities
[Link] steam recovery
[Link] leakage should be avoided
[Link] and condensate line along with valves should be properly insulated
[Link] transfer barrier should be minimized
[Link] to use direct injection of steam properly for heating where applicable
[Link] pipe redundancy
[Link] work to be done by steam
[Link] select steam trap and regularly inspect steam trap
Problem
In a crude distillation unit of a refinery, 50 MT/hr of crude is heated using saturated steam in
a heat exchanger from 35°C to 85°C. Plant is operating for 8000 hrs/annum. Consider
specific heat of the crude as 0.631 kCal/kg°C. The plant has two steam headers operating at
3 bar and 8 bar respectively, passing nearby the heat exchanger. Cost of steam is same for
both 3 bar and 8 bar @ BDT.4.50/kg.
As an Energy Manager, which of the following options will you recommend to the unit based
on the annual cost of steam?
a) Utilising 3 bar steam
b) Utilising 8 bar steam
Solution
In a process plant, 20 TPH of steam after pressure reduction with pressure reducing valve to
20 kg/cm2 gets superheated. The temperature of steam is 280oC. The management wants
to install a de-super heater to convert superheated steam into saturated steam at 20 kg/cm2
for process use, and its saturation temperature is 210oC.
Calculate quantity of water at 30oC to be injected in de-super heater to get the desired
saturated steam using the following data.
Specific heat of superheated steam = 0.45 kCal/KgoC
Latent heat of steam at 20 kg/cm2 = 450 kCal/kg
Solution
Quantity of heat available above saturation = 20,000 x 0.45 x (280-210)
= 6,30,000kCal
Quantity of water required in de-superheater = Q x {1x (210-30) + 450} = 630000
= 1000 kg/hr
 Chapter 4
Industrial Furnace
A furnace is an equipment to melt metals for casting or heat
materials for change of shape (rolling, forging etc.) or change
of properties (heat treatment).
 Industrial
Furnace

Cont. Steel
Re-rolling Forging Melting
Reheating

Cont. Re
Continuous Walking Rotary Walking
Batch Pusher circulating Cupola Inductive
Pusher hearth hearth beam
Bogie
Forging
Forging is a manufacturing process where metal is heated and shaped using compressive
forces. It is used to create strong and durable components like automotive parts, tools, and
structural components. Forging can be done at various temperatures, including:
oHot forging (high temperatures to increase malleability)
oCold forging (room temperature for better surface finish and precision)
Rerolling
Rerolling is the process of reshaping semi-finished steel products, such as billets or ingots,
into usable shapes like rods, bars, and sheets. The process typically involves reheating the steel
and passing it through rolling mills to achieve the desired size and properties. Rerolling is
commonly used in the construction industry for making structural steel.
Steel Reheating Furnace
A steel reheating furnace is an industrial furnace used to heat raw steel billets, ingots, or slabs to
a temperature suitable for hot working processes like forging, rolling, or extrusion. The reheating
furnaces maintain uniform heat to ensure proper malleability and metallurgical properties. They
operate using fuels like natural gas, oil, or electricity and are crucial in maintaining the desired
temperature for downstream processing.
Cupola Furnace
Importance of reducing zone
Reducing zone or protection zone is the portion located from the top of the
combustion zone to the top of the coke bed. In this zone, some of the hot
CO2 gas moving upward through the hot coke gets reduced to CO. In
other words, reduction of CO2 to CO occurs in this zone. Due to the
reducing atmosphere, the charge is protected from oxidation.
 Induction Furnace
Induction furnaces are ideal for
melting and alloying a wide
variety of metals with minimum
melt losses, however, little
refining of the metal is possible.
There are two main types of
induction furnace: coreless and
channel, the principle of
operation of which are the
same.
Factors affecting the furnace efficiency The factors, which affect the
furnace efficiency, are as under;
• Due to poor maintenance the total production stops sometimes.
Higher breakdown results in increasing the' cost of production
• Due to low supply voltage the furnace draws less power, causes
slow melting and inefficient operation resulting increase in production
cost.
• Sometimes lining material selection is wrong with respect to metal.
Basic lining is better conductor of heat compared to acidic lining. Wrong
lining selection increases breakdown, Furnace down time and furnace
losses, resulting in inefficient operation.
• Poor coordination between melting staff & contractor
• Absence of material handling equipment
• Poor molding efficiency, so furnace on hold
• Poor quality scrap, reducing lining life, takes more time to melt.
• Absence of thermal insulation between lining & coil.
Performance
Evaluation of
a Fuel Fired
Furnace
Performance Evaluation of a Fuel Fired
Furnace
The major losses that occur in the fuel fired furnaces are listed below.
1. Heat lost through exhaust gases either as sensible heat or as incomplete combustion
2. Heat loss through furnace walls and hearth
3. Heat loss to the surroundings by radiation and convection from the outer surface of the
walls
4. Heat loss through gases leaking through cracks, openings and doors.
Performance Evaluation of a Fuel Fired
Furnace

Furnace
Efficiency

Direct Indirect
Method Method
Direct
Method
Problem
Solution
Thermal
efficiencies
for common
industrial
furnaces
Furnace oil
constituents (% by
weight)
Carbon - 85.9 %,
Hydrogen -12%,
Oxygen - 0.7%,
Nitrogen - 0.5%,
Sulphur - 0.5%,
Moisture - 0.35%, Ash -
0.05%, GCV- 10,000
kcal/kg
= 61.33 x 1.084 x {584 + 0.47 x (650 – 40)}
= 57,886 kcal/tonne of billet
Q10 (unaccounted losses)
= (Q1 + Q2)- (Q3 + Q4 + Q5 + Q6 + Q7 + Q8+ Q9)
= (6,15,140) - (1,56,000 + 3,19,627 + 57886+ 19,907 + 229 + 6,122 +
38,485)
= 16,884 kcal/t
Total heat output= Q3 + Q4 + Q5 + Q6 + Q7 + Q8+ Q9 + Q10
=1,56,000 + 3,19,627 + 57886+ 19,907 + 229 + 6,122 + 38,485 +
16,884
= 6,15,140 kcal/t
 Typical energy efficiency measures for an industry with furnace are:

1. Complete combustion with minimum excess air

2. Correct heat distribution

Fuel
3. Operating at the desired temperature
economy
measures in 4. Reducing heat losses from furnace openings

fuel fired 5. Maintaining correct amount of furnace draught

furnace 6. Optimum capacity utilization

7. Waste heat recovery from the flue gases

8. Minimum refractory losses

9. Use of Ceramic Coatings

• Proper heat distribution
• Avoid Flame Obstruction: The flame should not touch or be obstructed by any solid object to
prevent fuel de-atomization, incomplete combustion, black smoke, and increased scale losses.
• Prevent Flame Impingement: Flames should not touch the refractory walls to avoid chemical
reactions between incomplete combustion products and refractory materials.
• Separate Burner Flames: Burner flames must stay clear of each other to ensure efficient
combustion; stagger burners on opposite sides to prevent flame intersection.
• Proper Flame Orientation: In small furnaces, burners should be angled upward, not parallel to the
hearth, to allow free flame movement without hitting the roof.
• Use Smaller Burners: Larger burners with long flames can be hard to contain; using more burners
of smaller capacity improves heat distribution and prolongs furnace life.
• Control Flame Length: For small furnaces, aim for a golden yellow flame of appropriate length for
uniform heating. Flames should not escape through the chimney, doors, or top of the furnace to
avoid fuel wastage
 Waste Heat Recovery from
Furnace Flue Gases:

• Charge preheating
• Preheating of combustion air
• Utilizing waste heat for other
process (to generate steam or
hot water by a waste heat
boiler)
A recuperator is a device that recovers heat from exhaust gas exhausted from a furnace.

External Recuperators
Radiation Recuperators:
• Comprised of concentric cylinders where combustion air flows through the annulus, and furnace
exhaust gases pass through the center.
• Ideal for use with dirty gases, offering low flow resistance and compact design (can replace
flues/chimneys).
• Suitable for exhaust gases above 800°C, as they rely on high-temperature radiation
•Convection Recuperators:
•Made of tube bundles (drawn or cast), often with fins to enhance heat transfer.
•Air typically flows through the tubes, while exhaust gases pass outside, though the flow can be
reversed for dirty gases.
•Variations include U-tube and double-pass systems.
•Best suited for exhaust gas temperatures below 900°C.
 Self-recuperative burners (SRBs) are
based on traditional heat recovery
techniques in that the products of
combustion are drawn through a
concentric tube recuperator around
the burner body and used to pre-heat
the combustion air
A major advantage of this type of
system is that it can be retro-fitted to
an existing furnace structure to
Self- increase production capability without
having to alter the existing exhaust gas
Recuperative ducting arrangements. SRBs are
Burners generally more suited to heat
treatment furnaces where exhaust gas
temperatures are lower
 Problem
In a crude distillation unit of a refinery, furnace is operated to heat 500 m3/hr of crude oil from 255°C to
360°C by firing 3.4 tons/hr of fuel oil having GCV of 9850 kcal/kg. As an energy conservation measure, the
management has installed an air pre heater (APH) to reduce the flue gas heat loss. The APH is designed to
pre-heat 57 tonnes/hr of combustion air to 195°C.
Calculate the efficiency of the furnace before & after the installation of APH.
Consider the following data:
• Specific heat of crude oil = 0.6 kcal/kg°C
• Specific heat of air = 0.24 kcal/kg°C
• Specific gravity of Crude oil = 0.85
• Ambient temperature = 28°C.
Solution
Chapter 5: Insulation and Refractories
• A thermal insulator is a poor conductor of heat and has a low thermal
conductivity
• It is used to prevent heat loss or heat gain to enable less energy consumption
while meeting the demands of heating and cooling
Benefits if insulation
• Reduces over-all energy consumption
• Offers better process control by maintaining process temperature.
• Prevents corrosion by keeping the exposed surface of a refrigerated
system above dew point
• Provides fire protection to equipment
• Absorbs vibration
Classification
Temperature Application Materials

Low (<90 °C) Refrigerators, cold / hot water Cork, wood, 85% magnesia,
systems, storage tanks mineral fibers, polyurethane,
expanded polystyrene

Medium (90 –325 °C) Low-temperature heating and 85% magnesia, asbestos,
steam generating equipment, calcium silicate, mineral fibers
steam lines, flue ducts

High (>325 °C) Boilers, super-heated steam Asbestos, calcium silicate,

systems, oven, driers and mineral fibre, mica, vermiculite,
furnaces fireclay, silica, ceramic fibre
Classification of insulating materials based on
their forms
■ Powdered: It is mixed with water used to cover odd
shapes
such as pipe unions, elbows, valves etc.
■ Sheet: applied to flat areas such as ceilings, ducts,
etc.
■ Block and brick: used to cover outside surfaces of
boilers.
■ Blanket: used to cover ducts, pipes.
■ Tube: used to insulate steam and hot water pipes.
■ Roll: used to cover cold and warm-air ducts for
furnace
castings in hot-air heating systems.
■ Custom Moulded Insulation: in the form of
moulded sections; semi - cylindrical for pipes, slabs
for vessels, flanges, valves etc
Effectiveness of Insulation: R-value
■ Indicates the resistance of heat flow: higher the R-value, the
greater the insulating power
■ The actual R-value of thermal insulation depends on the type
of material, its thickness and density.
■ In calculating the R-value of insulation, the R-values of the
individual layers are added.
Economic thickness of insulation
The point where the amount of insulation
gives the greatest return on investment is
called as “economic thickness of insulation
(ETI)”.
 Methodology
• Step 1: Calculate the surface area of pipe
• Step 2: Calculate unit heat loss and using surface area calculate total surface heat loss with and without insulation.
• Step 3: Convert heat loss to fuel loss using calorific value of fuel used in boiler. Adjust fuel usage to boiler efficiency.
Convert hourly loss to yearly loss.
• Step 4: Using unit fuel cost data estimate fuel loss in cost terms for the entire life of insulating material i.e. 5 years.
• Step 5: Using given insulating material costs estimate cost of insulation for varying thickness of the insulating material.
• Step 6: Calculate the total cost of insulation and fuel loss cost.
• Step 7: Plot graph of Insulation thickness v/s Cost of insulating material, Cost of fuel loss and total cost.
• Step 8: Identify the economic thickness of insulating material by drawing a vertical line at the point of intersection of c ost
of insulating material and cost of fuel loss lines.
Economic
thickness of
insulation
Refractories
Refractories are non-metallic materials have insulating and other chemical and physical
properties that make them able to contain the heat generated by burning of the fuel in the
furnace and to minimise heat losses, withstand high temperatures and make them
applicable for structures, or as components of systems, that are exposed to environments
above 1,000 °F (811 K; 538 °C) and should not contaminate the material with which it is in
contact.
Properties
Cold crushing strength: The cold crushing strength, which is considered by some to be of
doubtful relevance as a useful property, other than that it reveals little more than the ability
to withstand the rigors of transport, can be used as a useful indicator to the adequacy of
firing and abrasion resistance in consonance with other properties such as bulk density
and porosity
Pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE): Temperature at which a refractory will deform under
its own weight is known as its softening temperature which is indicated by PCE.
Refractories, due to their chemical complexity, melt progressively over a range of
temperature. Hence refractoriness or fusion point is ideally assessed by the cone fusion
method. The equivalent standard cone which melts to the same extent as the test cone is
known as the pyrometric cone equivalent.
Pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE)
Refractoriness under load (RUL): The refractoriness under load test (RUL test) gives an
indication of the temperature at which the bricks will collapse, in service conditions with
similar load.
Creep at high temperature: Creep is a time dependent property which determines the
deformation in a given time and at a given temperature by a material under stress.
Volume stability, expansion, and shrinkage at high temperatures: The contraction or
expansion of the refractories can take place during service. Such permanent changes in
dimensions may be due to several operational factors.
Reversible thermal expansion: Any material when heated, expands, and contracts on
cooling. The reversible thermal expansion is a reflection on the phase transformations that
occur during heating and cooling.
Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity depends upon the chemical and mineralogical
compositions as well as the glassy phase contained in the refractory and the application
temperature. The conductivity usually changes with rise in temperature
High Emissivity Coatings Emissivity is
the measure of a material’s ability to both
absorb and radiate heat. The high emissivity
materials when coated increases the surface
emissivity of materials, with resultant benefits
in heat transfer efficiency and in the service
life of heat transfer components like
refractories and metallic components such as
radiant tubes and heating elements.
Furnaces, which operate at high
temperature, have emissivity of 0.3. By using
high emissivity coatings this can go up to
0.8 thus effectively increasing the radiative
heat transfer.
Pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE)
A fluidized bed forms when a gas flows upward through solid particles. At low flow rates,
the gas permeates without disturbing the particles (packed bed). As velocity increases, the
gas supports the particles, making the bed fluidized. At the minimum fluidizing velocity, the
bed expands, and further increases cause bubble formation, creating a "bubbling bed." If
velocity rises further, smaller particles get carried away, leading to a "circulating bed"
where particles are separated and returned.
Regimes of
fluidized bed
systems
Relation between gas velocity and
solid velocity
A Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) boiler consists of the following key components:
• Plenum Chamber – A pressure chamber below the air distributor that ensures uniform airflow for proper
fluidization.

• Fluidized Bed – A chamber where solid fuel burns in a bed of sand or ash, fluidized by air.

• Air Distributor – A perforated plate or nozzles that evenly distribute air to fluidize the bed.

• Fuel Feeding System – Mechanism for feeding solid fuel (coal, biomass, etc.) into the bed.
• Combustion Chamber – The main furnace where fuel burns efficiently at lower temperatures.

• Cyclone Separator – Captures entrained solid particles from flue gas and recirculates them to the bed.

• Heat Exchanger (Superheater, Economizer, Air Preheater) – Extracts heat from flue gases to generate
steam and improve efficiency.
• Flue Gas Treatment System – Includes dust collectors and scrubbers to remove pollutants before
exhaust.
• Ash Handling System – Collects and removes bottom and fly ash from the boiler.
 Fuel flexibility
Most FBC boilers can practically burn all combustible material.
Operational Reliability

Advantages • Non usage of pneumatic feeding system

of FBC
• Operation at lower and more uniform temperature than conventional
boilers. Because of the turbulent mixing and the efficient transfer of heat,

Boilers temperatures within the fluidized bed are uniform which minimizes hot
spots
• Having no moving parts that need continuous and frequent maintenance.
Environmental Acceptability
Fluidized bed combustion is more environmentally friendly as it suppresses
sulphur dioxide at the time of combustion rather than removing it from flue
gases later
Economic Viability
The unique feature of FBC to burn inexpensive, low-grade, and high sulphur
coals indicate a favourable cost differential in using FBC.
Advantages and Disadvantages of FBC Boilers
Types of
Fluidized 1 Bubbling fluidized bed (BFB): BFB technology is well suited for

Bed utilisation of ‘difficult’ fuels such as high moisture fuels, high-ash fuels

Combustion and low volatile fuels as well as for smaller industrial applications.
2 Circulating fluidized bed (CFB): The basic difference between BFB
Boilers
and its successor CFB is the fluidisation velocity, which is higher for
CFB compared to BFB.
3 Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion System (PFBC): It was
developed to combine the advantages of both BFB and CFB and thus
found its application to be in medium-scaled (industrial) capacity
range.
Circulating Bed Boiler
Chapter 7:
Cogeneration
Cogeneration – ‘Generating Together' – refers
to the process wherein we obtain both heat
and electricity from the same fuel at the same
time.
Combined Heat
& Power
The heat energy from the system is also
used directly, as heat, or indirectly to
produce steam, hot water, and hot air,
thus making it a Combined Heat and
Power (CHP) or Cogeneration system.
 • In conventional power plant when steam or gas expands through a
turbine, nearly 60 to 70% of the input energy escapes with the
exhaust steam or gas yielding only 30-40% efficiency.
Benefits of • Also further losses of around 10-15% are associated with the
transmission and distribution of electricity in the electrical grid.
Co- These losses are greatest when electricity is delivered to the smallest
generation consumers.
• If this energy in the exhaust steam or gas is utilized for meeting the
process heat requirements, the efficiency of utilization of the fuel
will increase and corresponding GHG emissions will reduce.
• In cogeneration system efficiencies can go up to 90% and above
providing energy savings ranging between 15-40% when compared
against the supply of electricity and heat from conventional power
stations and boilers.
• Since, electricity generated by cogeneration plant is normally used
locally the transmission and distribution losses are negligible.
Classification
of There are two main types of cogeneration concepts:
Cogeneration • “Topping Cycle” plants
Systems • “Bottoming Cycle” plants.
A topping cycle plant generates electricity or mechanical power
first.
A bottoming cycle plant generates heat first.
There are four types of topping cycle cogeneration systems
 Topping Cycle
1. Combined-cycle topping system
Fuel can be burned directly in either
a gas turbine or a diesel engine to
produce electrical or mechanical
power and the exhaust is used to
provide steam to produce electrical
or mechanical power (i.e. Combined
Cycle Power Plant).
Combined
Cycle
Combined
Cycle
2. steam-turbine topping system
Fuel can be burned initially to
produce high-pressure steam
which is then passed through a
steam turbine to produce power,
and the exhaust is used as process
steam
Steam-turbine topping system
 Steam-turbine topping system

Back Pressure Turbines: A type of steam turbine

that is used in connection with industrial processes
where there is a need for low or medium pressure
steam.
Extraction back-pressure turbines are employed
when two or more types of
process steam at different pressures are required
3. Diesel or Gas engine topping systems.
A third type the exhaust from engine is used in a heat recovery boiler to provide
process heat or process steam and also employs hot water from an engine
jacket for process heat.
Steam-turbine
topping
system
4. Gas-turbine topping system
A natural gas turbine drives a
generator. The exhaust gas goes
to a heat recovery boiler that
makes process steam and process
heat.
Bottoming
cycle
Bottoming cycle plants are much
less common than topping cycle
plants. These plants exist in heavy
industries such as glass or metals
manufacturing where very high
temperature furnaces are used.
 Types of Steam turbine cycle
Back-Pressure turbine: In this type steam enters the turbine chamber at High Pressure and
expands to Low or Medium Pressure. Enthalpy difference is used for generating power /work.
Extraction cum condensing turbine generates power while providing MP and LP steam for
process needs, with surplus steam condensed in a surface condenser.
Total Condensing turbine: In this type, steam entering at High / Medium Pressure condenses in a
surface condenser and work is done till it reaches the Condensing pressure (vacuum).
Extraction condensing turbines have a higher power-to-heat ratio than back-pressure turbines
and are suited for fluctuating loads where electricity demand exceeds steam demand, despite
requiring additional equipment like condensers and cooling towers.
Methods for Calculating CHP System
Efficiency
Two efficiency metrics namely Total system efficiency and Effective electric
efficiency are used to compare CHP systems with SHP systems
Total system efficiency refers to the sum of the useful power output (in MW
expressed in Btu/hr) and useful thermal outputs (in Btu/hr) divided by the
total fuel input (in Btu/hr) and is the more commonly cited efficiency metric.
Effective electric efficiency refers to the electricity output divided by the
additional fuel the CHP system uses over and above what would have been
used by a conventional system to meet the facility’s thermal energy load.
Heat to Power Ratio
Cogeneration is likely to be most attractive when the demand for both steam and power
is balanced i.e. consistent with the range of steam (Heat) to power output ratios that can be
obtained from a suitable cogeneration plant.
Heat-to-power ratio defined as the ratio of thermal energy to electricity required by the
energy consuming facility and expressed in different units such as Btu/kWh, kcal/kWh,
kW/kW, etc.
It is one of the most important technical parameters influencing the selection of the type of
cogeneration system.
Typical Heat: Power ratios for certain energy intensive industries
Framework
for Evaluating
CHP viability
 Operating Strategies for Cogeneration
Plant
• The unit is operated to provide base load electrical and thermal output. Any
shortfall is supplemented with electricity from external public/private utility and
heat from stand-by boilers or boost ( thermic fluid) heaters;
• The unit is operated to provide electricity in excess of the site’s requirements, for
export, whilst all the thermal output is used on site;
• The unit is operated to provide electricity for site, with or without export, and the
heat produced is used on site with the surplus being exported to off-site
customers.
Economics of
a Gas
Turbine
based
Cogeneration
System
Tri generation
Trigeneration refers to simultaneous generation of steam (heat),
power and refrigeration through integrated systems. Industries
requiring electricity, steam and cooling such as food processing and
cold storages find the concepts of tri-generation very attractive.
Micro steam Turbine

The Micro steam Turbine Power

System is a compact, efficient power
system that generates electricity
from pressure energy previously
wasted in the steam pressure
reducing valves.
Problem
Problem 2
Problem 2
Solution 2
 Chapter 8: Waste heat recovery
Waste heat recovery (WHR) equipment is defined as any mechanical apparatus which usefully
recovers thermal energy from process waste streams that are above ambient temperatures.
Common Methods to Utilize Waste Heat
• Direct utilization
• Energy cascading
• Cogeneration
• Recuperators
• Regenerators
• Waste heat boilers
Factors Affecting Waste Heat
Recovery
• Temperature of waste heat source
• Minimum temperature to which waste heat can be cooled
• Temperature to which the designed fluid is to be heated
• Flow rate of the fluid
• Chemical composition of waste fluid
• Properties of waste fluid (Cp, μ, , k)
• Corrosive elements in the exhaust fluid
 Classifications of WHR Equipment
• Gas-to-gas heat exchanger (Graphite heat exchangers, stack-type
recuperators, direct contact recuperator, plate fin (ceramic and metal)heat
exchangers and ceramic tubes)
• Gas-to-liquid heat exchanger (waste heat boilers, economizers and power
generators)
• Liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger (shell-and-tube, spiral, coil, finned-tube,
plate-and-frame (plate), and run-around heat exchangers)
• Other low-temperature WHR equipment (heat pumps, and heat pipes)
Usages of waste heat
Waste heat can be used in various ways, but the major uses include the following:
1) preheating combustion air
2) generating electrical and mechanical power
3) generating process steam
4) preheating boiler water
5) heating general process liquids and solids
6) heating viscous, corrosive, and difficult liquids
7) heating, ventilation and refrigeration applications.
Gas-to-gas
Heat
Exchanger
Graphite heat exchangers
Stack gas recuperator

Flat plate recuperator

 GAS TO LIQUID HEAT EXCHANGERS

Gas-to-liquid
heat exchanger
Economizer

Organic Rankin cycle

` Waste Heat Boiler
Liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger:
Spiral HE
Shell & Tube HE

Plate type HE

Run around HE Coil HE

 Recuperator: Hot and cold fluids are
separated by surfaces, and heat is
Recuperator & transferred by combination of

Regenerator
convection to and from the walls and
conduction through the walls.
Regenerator: Hot and cold fluids
alternatively occupy the same space
in the exchange core (matrix). Matrix
serves as the heat storage device that
is periodically heated by the warmer
fluid and then transfers heat to the
cold fluid.

Regenerator
 Heat pump

A heat pump is essentially a vapour

compression refrigeration machine
which takes heat from low temperature
source such as air or water and
upgrades it to be used at higher
temperature
 Heat pipes are devices which can
transfer 1000 times more thermal
energy than copper. It can be used in
traditionally difficult heat exchange
environments such as high particulate

Heat Pipe gases, dirty

environments,
liquids,
low
corrosive
temperature
gradients.
Heat pipe is basically a metal and
metal alloy tube that is sealed on both
ends and with an internal wick or mesh
along the interior of the pipe. The Heat
Pipe comprises of three elements – a
sealed container, a capillary wick
structure and a working fluid
Heat
exchanger
configuration

Parallel flow Heat

exchanger
Heat
exchanger
configuration

Counter flow Heat

exchanger
𝑸= 𝒎𝒉𝑪𝒉(𝒕𝒉.𝒊𝒏− 𝒕𝒉.𝒐𝒖𝒕)= 𝒎𝒄𝑪𝒄(𝒕𝒄.𝒊𝒏− 𝒕𝒄.𝒐𝒖𝒕)
Q=U ×Ao×(LMTD)
Q is the rate of heat transfer (W),
mh is the mass flow rate of hot fluid (kg/s),
mc is the mass flow rate of cold fluid (kg/s),
Ch is the specific heat of hot fluid (J/kgK),
Cc is the specific heat of cold fluid (J/kgK),
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient (i.e. U value) (W/m2K),
Ao is the outside surface area of heat exchanger (m2),
 MODULE 2

THE END BEST OF LUCK