Chapter 3

COMPRESSED AIR
SYSTE M
Efficiency of Compressed Air system

• Air compressors account for a significant amount electricity used in industrial sector

• The generation efficiency is only about 10% as shown in the figure 3.1 and balance 90% of
energy of the power of the prime mover being converted to unusable heat energy and to a
lesser extent lost in form of friction, misuse and noise
• Further considering the distribution efficiency, the overall efficiency can be as low as 6.5%
when pressure drops, leaks, and part-load control losses are considered.
Efficiency of Compressed Air system
1. Positive Displacement Compressors
These compressors increase pressure by reducing the volume of gas.
• Reciprocating Compressor: Uses pistons and cylinders; suitable for high-pressure applications like
refrigeration and gas transmission.
• Rotary Screw Compressor: Uses intermeshing screws; widely used in industrial applications due to
continuous operation and efficiency.
• Rotary Vane Compressor: Uses rotating vanes in a housing; commonly used in automotive and low-
pressure applications.
2. Dynamic Compressors
These compressors increase pressure by imparting velocity to the gas.
• Centrifugal Compressor: Uses a high-speed impeller to accelerate the gas; used in large-scale
refrigeration, HVAC, and gas processing.
• Axial Compressor: Uses multiple rotating blades to compress gas in stages; commonly used in jet
engines and high-volume applications.
Selection criteria of compressors
Comparison of different compressor
System Components
• Intake Air Filters: Prevent dust and atmospheric impurities from entering compressor. Dust causes
sticking valves, scored cylinders, excessive wear etc.
• Inter-stage Coolers: Reduce the temperature of the air(gas) before it enters the next stage to
reduce the work of compression and increase efficiency. They can be water-or air-cooled.
• After Coolers: Reduce the temperature of the discharge air and thereby reduce the moisture
carrying capacity of air.
• Air-dryers: Air dryers are used to remove moisture, as air for instrument and pneumatic equipment
needs to be relatively free of any moisture. The moisture is removed by suing ads or bents or
refrigerant dryers, or state of the art heat less dryers.
• Moisture Traps: Air traps are used for removal of moisture in the compressed air distribution lines.
They resemble steam traps in which the air is trapped and moisture is removed.
• Receivers: Depending on the system requirements, one or more air receivers are generally
provided to reduce output pulsations and pressure variations.
Compressor Performance
• Capacity of a Compressor: Free Air Delivery (FAD): The volume of air, which is drawn
in from the atmosphere by the compressor, then compressed and delivered at a
specific pressure.
Simple method of Capacity Assessment:
1. Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver being taken for test
from main compressed air system by tightly closing the isolation valve or blank, thus
closing the receiver outlet.
2. Open water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver and the
pipe line. Make sure that water trap is tightly closed once again to start the test.
3. Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch.
4. Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in the receiver)
from initial pressure P1.
Capacity Calculation
Compressor Efficiency Definitions
• The iso-thermal efficiency
of a multi-stage air
compressor can be
calculated as a ratio of the
theoretical kW required for
a duty conditions and the
actual kW input measured.
This efficiency would
reflect the combined
efficiency of the
compressor and the drive
motor
Volumetric Efficiency

D = Cylinder bore, meter

L = Cylinder stroke, meter
S = Compressor speed rpm
X= 1 for single acting and
2 for double acting cylinders
n = No. of cylinders
Efficient Compressor Operation: Reciprocating Compressors

• Reciprocating compressor capacity is controlled by throttling, clearance

volume, bypass (inefficient except at very low capacities), un-loaders
(common and efficient), or speed control (most efficient).
• Performance is affected by altitude (higher altitude increases compression
ratio and temperature), inlet temperature, discharge pressure (minimize to
save power), interstage cooling (use intercoolers but avoid
overcooling/condensation), and speed.
• For pressure ratios above 4, use multistage compression with intercooling.

• Compressor location matters; avoid high moisture/temperature and ensure

adequate suction clearance
Efficient Compressor Operation: Centrifugal Compressors

• Centrifugal compressors operate efficiently only at their design point, with

deviations reducing performance.
• Performance curves help optimize efficiency and should be used for system
design.
• High pressure and reduced flow can cause surging, leading to instability and
damage, which can be prevented using bypass valves.
• Output control methods include variable inlet-guide vanes, throttling, and
speed control, with speed control being the most efficient.
Efficient Compressor Operation: Screw compressors

• Screw compressors control capacity using a slide valve or speed variation,

with speed control being the most efficient.
• They maintain full pressure regardless of speed and are stable even at low
loads.
• Power consumption is proportional to speed, making variable speed drives
effective.
• However, part-load power use is higher than in other compressors, and
matching discharge pressure to the system is crucial to avoid inefficiencies.
Energy Efficiency Practices In Compressed Air
Systems
• Cool air intake

Every 4°C rise in inlet air

temperature results in a higher energy
consumption by 1% to achieve
equivalent output. Hence, cool air
intake leads to a more efficient
compression.
 Dust Free Air Intake
• Dust in the suction air causes excessive wear of moving parts and results in
malfunctioning of the valves due to abrasion. Suitable air filters should be provided at
the suction side. Air filters should have high dust separation capacity, low pressure
drops and robust design to avoid frequent cleaning and replacement.
• Air filters should be selected based on the compressor type and installed as close to
the compressor as possible.
• For every 25mbar pressure lost at the inlet due to choked filters, the compressor
performance is reduced by about 2percent. Hence, it is advisable to clean inlet air
filters at regular intervals to avoid high-pressure drops
• Manometers or differential pressure gauges across filters may be provided for
monitoring pressure drops so as to plan filter-cleaning schedules.
Dry Air Intake
• It is desirable to draw air with a low relative humidity, as otherwise, energy is consumed to
compress the water vapour in the air and again to condense and drain the moisture from inter
and after coolers.

Pre-Cooled Air Intake

• By cooling the air entering the compressor, the efficiency of the compressor can be improved.
This cooling, usually to 25 DegC is achieved by refrigeration, if the chilled water is available at
cheap cost. As the temperature of air is reduced, its volume decreases and a greater mass of
air is available for the given compressor.
• Using pre-cooled dry air can save about 20– 30 % of compressor power requirement.
Elevation
• The altitude of a place has a direct impact on the volumetric efficiency of the compressor. The
effect of altitude on volumetric efficiency is given below:.

• It is evident that compressors located at higher altitudes consume more power to achieve a
particular delivery pressure than those at sea level, as the compression ratio is higher.
Cooling Water Circuit
• Cooling Tower Performance

Cooling towers lower warm water temperature close to the ambient wet bulb temperature, with an approach of 2-
5°C. However, microbial growth, scaling, and poor maintenance reduce efficiency, affecting compressor cooling.
Regular maintenance is essential for optimal performance.
• Effect of air wet bulb temperature on cooling tower performance

The wet bulb temperature significantly impacts cooling tower performance, as it determines the lowest possible
cooling temperature. Higher wet bulb temperatures reduce cooling efficiency, while lower temperatures improve
performance
• Cooling Tower Pump

Cooling water is supplied to compressors at a specific pressure and flow rate, affecting performance. High-
efficiency pumps and motors should be used due to continuous operation. Proper design of pipelines and coolers
minimizes pressure drops. Over-designed pumps often supply multiple compressors, leading to water wastage
during low demand periods. To prevent this, idle compressors should be shut down or equipped with a pressure
switch to stop water flow when not needed
 Cooling Water Circuit
• Cooling Tower fans

Cooling tower fans improve air circulation and efficiency, but malfunctions reduce performance. Proper maintenance
and energy management are essential. Moreover following options can be considered for higher efficiency:
o .Fans can be intermittently operated based on water temperature to save energy.
o Two-speed motors, variable pitch fans, and inverter devices help adjust speed to cooling needs.

o Replacing heavy metal blades with lightweight FRP blades reduces power consumption
o fluid-coupling drives optimize fan speed control for efficiency.

• Cooling Water TDS

High TDS levels in cooling water, due to evaporation

and losses, cause scaling in compressor components,

reducing heat exchanger efficiency and compressor

capacity. Scaling also increases pressure drop and
pumping power consumption, affecting overall performance.

Proper water quality management is essential to prevent these issues.

Efficacy of Inter and After Coolers

• Inter-coolers in multi-stage compressors cool air, reduce volume, and

condense moisture, lowering power requirements. Perfect cooling keeps inlet
air temperature constant, but scaling in heat exchangers increases power
consumption. A 5.5°C rise in second-stage inlet air raises energy use by 2%.
After-coolers further reduce air temperature and moisture, but fouling leads to
warm, humid air, causing corrosion. Regular cleaning of heat exchangers and
cylinder heads is essential for efficiency.
Pressure Settings Optimisation
• Reducing Delivery Pressure: Compressor power consumption is tied to operating pressure
and capacity. Operating above optimal pressure wastes energy, increases wear, and reduces
volumetric efficiency. Lowering delivery pressure (after analyzing equipment needs and
pressure drop) and properly adjusting pressure switch cut-in/out points can improve
efficiency.
• Compressor modulation by Optimum Pressure Settings: In industrial settings with multiple
compressors on a shared network, optimizing compressor combinations and modulation is key
to energy conservation. For similar compressors, adjust pressure so one handles load
variations while others run near full capacity. With different sizes, the smallest should
modulate. When different types operate together (e.g., reciprocating and screw), the
reciprocating (typically lower no-load power consumption) should modulate, keeping the
screw compressor at full load. Generally, the most energy-efficient compressors should
handle the bulk of the demand.
Pressure Settings Optimisation
• Mains air pressure reduction

If the low pressure air requirement is considerable, it is advisable to generate low

pressure and high pressure air separately, and feed to the respective sections instead of
reducing the pressure through pressure reducing valves, which invariably waste energy.
• Minimum pressure drop in air lines

Excess pressure drop due

to inadequate pipe sizing, choked
filter elements, improperly sized
couplings and hoses represent
energy wastage
Blowers in place of Compressed Air System

• Since the compressed air system is already available, facilities

engineers may be tempted to use compressed air to provide air for
low pressure requirements such as agitating plating tanks or
pneumatic conveying. Using a blower that is designed for lower
pressure operation will cost only a fraction of compressed air
generation cost
 Capacity Control of Compressors
• On / Off Control

starts or stops the compressor by means of a pressure activated switch as the air
demand varies. This is a very efficient method in controlling the capacity of compressor,
where the motor idle-running losses are eliminated. This is suitable for small
compressors (less than 10 kW).
• Load Unload control
Here's how it works:
o Load: When pressure drops below a set point, the compressor "loads" and starts compressing air,
increasing the pressure in the system.
o Unload: Once the pressure reaches a higher set point, the compressor "unloads" and stops compressing air,
though the motor continues to run. reciprocating compressor consumes 20-30% power while scroll
compressor consumes 40-50% power during unload.
Capacity Control of Compressors

• Motor-driven reciprocating compressors above75 kW are usually equipped with a multi-step

control. In this type of control, unloading is accomplished in a series of steps, varying from full
load down to no-load. Five-step control (0%, 25%, 50%, 75% & 100%) is accomplished by means
of clearance pockets. In some cases, a movable cylinder head is provided for variable
clearance in the cylinder
Throttling Control & Speed control
• Throttling Control: This kind of control is achieved using an inlet valve or a
variable–displacement slide valve. is suitable for screw compressors where the
capacity can be varied from 40 to 100%. The variable displacement method is
more efficient than the inlet valve.
• Speed Control: An efficient way to match compressor output to meet varying
load requirements is by speed control. At low volumetric flow (below 40 %), vane
control may result in lower power input compared to speed control due to low
efficiency of the speed control system. For loads more than 40%, speed control
is recommended.
Avoiding Misuse of Compressed Air
• Misuse of compressed air for tasks like cleaning, cooling, and material conveying should be
avoided. Alternatives like blowers, vacuum cleaners, mechanical systems (conveyors, stirrers),
and hydraulic power packs are often more efficient and cost-effective. For applications
requiring air movement, consider fans or blowers instead of high-pressure compressed air. If
compressed air is absolutely necessary for cleaning, use blow guns at low pressure (below 2
bar) and consider a separate cleaning air header used only for specific periods. \
• Personal comfort cooling with compressed air is dangerous and wasteful, and should be
replaced with man coolers or air washers. Vacuum systems are preferred over venturi
methods, and material mixing is better achieved mechanically or with low-pressure air.
Prioritize safety over energy conservation, especially in hazardous environments where
electric tools may not be suitable.
Use of Line Moisture • Although, in an ideal system, all cooling
and condensing of air should be carried
Separator and Traps out before the air leaves the receiver, this
is not very often achieved in practice.
• In general, the air main should be given a
fall of not less than 1 m in 100 m in the
direction of air flow, and the distance
between drainage points should not
exceed 30m.
• Drainage points should be provided using
equal tees, as it assists in the separation
for water.
Air Receivers
• The main purpose of a receiver is to act as a pulsation damper, allowing inter mitten thigh
demands for compressed air to be met from a small compressor set, resulting in lesser
energy consumption.
• If receiver is sized too small for air demand, compressor will run for longer periods.

• Compressed air systems usually have one primary receiver and possibly few secondary
receivers near high intermittent air using equipment.
• As per IS 7938-1976, volume of air in receiver (in m3) should be 1/10th to 1/6th of the output
in m3/min.
• approximation can be to size the receiver volume to be 5% of the rated hourly free air output

• A simple formulae often quoted for air receiver size is to take a value equal to one minute’s
continuous output of the compressor. However, this should be considered indicative of the
minimum size of receiver
Air Receivers
• A better suggestion is to estimate the peak
air consumption likely and allow for the maximum
pressure drop in line that is acceptable at this peak
load.
Compressed Air • Although some water, oil and dirt are
removed by the separators and traps in the
Filter mains, still some of it is always left, which is
being carried over.
• To remove these, all of which are liable to
have deleterious effects on pneumatic
equipment, the air should be filtered as near
as possible to the point of use
• Water and oil collected in the filter sump
must be drained off because, if its level is
allowed to build up, then it is forced through
the filter element into the very system it is
designed to protect.
Regulators
• In many instances, pneumatic operations are to
be carried out at a lower pressure than that of
the main supply. For these applications,
pressure regulators are required to reduce the
pressure to the required value and also to
ensure that it remains reasonably constant at
the usage point.
• Pilot operated type regulators are energy
efficient than direct-acting and self- relieving
regulators.
Avoiding Air Leaks and Energy Wastage

• The major opportunity to save energy is in the prevention of leaks

in the compressed air system. Leaks frequently occur at air
receivers, relief valves, pipe and hose joints, shutoff valves, quick
release couplings, tools and equipment
Method for leak quantification
• Shut off compressed air operated equipment (or conduct test when no equipment is using
compressed air).
• Run the compressor to charge the system to set pressure of operation

• Note the subsequent time taken for ‘on load’ and ‘off load’ cycles of the compressors. For
accuracy, take ON & OFF times for 8 – 10 cycles continuously. Then calculate total ‘ON’ Time
(T) and Total ‘OFF’ time (t).
• The system leakage is calculated as

• System leakage (m3/min) = Q × T / (T + t)

Q = Actual free air being supplied during trial, in cubic meters per minute
T = Time on load in minutes
t = Time unload in minutes
Example
Leakage Test by Ultrasonic Leak Detector
Leakage tests are conducted by a Leak
Detector having a sensing probe, which
senses when there are leakages. The
leak is detected by ultrasonic vibration.
Leak testing is done by observing and
locating sources of ultrasonic vibrations
created by turbulent flow of gases
passing through leaks in pressurized or
evacuated systems
Capacity assessment of Compressor
Case study
Findings

• Total cycle time of (39.12 + 5.88)=45 minutes

• Compressed air generated in m3=45 (13.17) + 45 (12.32) + 45 (13.14) + 45 (12.75) + 5.88

(13.65) =2392.36 m3
• The consumption rate of the section connected= 2392.36 / 45 m3/min = 53.16 m3/min

• Energy consumption kWh =

45/60 (115.3) + 45/60 (117.20) + 45 / 60 (108.3) + 45/60 (104.3) + 5.88/60 (109.8)+ ((39.12) / 60)
39.3 = 370.21kWh
• Compressor air draw as a % of capacity on line is [2392.36 / 2926.35 ] × 100 = 81.75%

• Specific power consumption = 370.21 kWh / 2392.36 = 0.155 KWh/ m3/min

• Idle power consumption due to unload operation = ((39.12) / 60) 39.3=25.62kWh in every 45
minutes cycle i.e., 34.16 kWh every hour.
Recommendations
• It would be favorable and energy efficient to keep the compressor
‘D’ in cycling mode on account of lower un-load losses.
• A suitable smaller capacity compressor can be planned to replace
the compressor with highest unload losses.
• An investigation is called for, as to why such a large variation of
unload power drawn, exists although all compressors have almost
the same rated capacity.
Chapter 5

• Pump & Pumping

system
What is Pump ?
• A pump is a mechanical device used to move liquids, or slurries. A pump moves liquids from a
lower pressure to a higher pressure and is responsible for this difference in pressure.
Application of Pump
• •They provide domestic, commercial and agricultural services.

• •They provide municipal water and waste water services

• •Industrial services for food processing, chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and

mechanical industries.
Classification of pumps
Centrifugal Pumps
Hydraulic Power, Pump Shaft Power and Motor Input
Power
Hydraulic Power Ph = Q (m3/s) x Total Differential head,
hd - hs (m) x p (kg/m3) x g (m/s2) / 1000
Where hd -discharge head,
hs-suction head,
ρ-density of the liquid,
g- acceleration due to gravity
Performance
curve of a
pump
System Characteristics
• Static head is simply the difference in height of the
supply and destination reservoirs

• Friction head (sometimes called dynamic head loss)

is the friction loss, on the liquid being moved, in pipes,
valves and equipment in the system. Friction tables
are universally available for various pipe fittings and
valve
Friction head losses must be minimized to reduce
pumping cost, but after eliminating unnecessary pipe
fittings and length, further reduction in friction head will
require larger diameter pipe, which adds to capital cost.
 Pump operating point
• A "system curve" in pump selection is a graphical
representation that shows the pressure (head)
required by a fluid system at different flow rates,
essentially illustrating the resistance to flow
within the entire system, including pipes, fittings,
and elevation changes, which is crucial for
choosing the right pump to meet the system's
needs; it is calculated based on the system's
geometry and fluid properties, and when plotted
alongside a pump performance curve, the
Static head
intersection point indicates the operating point of
the pump within the system.
 Factors Affecting
Pump Performance
• Centrifugal pumps have a specific
relationship between the flow rate (how
much fluid they move) and the pressure
(how forcefully they move it). This
relationship is shown in a head-flow
curve, which is usually provided by the
pump's manufacturer. A pump's
efficiency is highest at a specific flow
rate, and selecting the right pump for
an application depends on matching its
head-flow characteristics to the needs
of the system it will be used in
 • Suppose, we have estimated our operating conditions
as 500 m3/hr flow and 50 m head, we will chose a
pump curve which intersects the system curve (Point
Effect of over sizing A) at the pump’s best efficiency point (BEP).
• But, in actual operation, we find that 300 m3/hr is
the pump sufficient. The reduction in flow rate has to be effected
by a throttle valve. In other words, we are introducing
an artificial resistance in the system.
• Due to this additional resistance, the frictional part of
the system curve increases and thus the new system
curve will shift to the left - this is shown as the red
curve.
• The revised parameters are 300 m3/hr at 70 m head.

• The red double arrow line shows the additional

pressure drop due to throttling.
• best efficiency point has shifted from 82% to 77%
efficiency
 Energy loss in throttling
• Consider a case where we need to pump 68 m3/hr
of water at 47 m head. The pump characteristic
curves (A. . .E) for a range of pumps are given
• If we select pump E, then the efficiency is 60%

• Hydraulic Power = Q (m3/s) x Total Differential

head, hd- hS (m) x ρ (kg/m3) x g (m/s2)/ 1000

So, Hydraulic Power= 8.7 kW, thern, Shaft Power =

8.7/0.60 = 14.5 kw & Motor Power = 14.5 / 0.9 = 16.1
kW
 Energy loss in throttling
• If we select pump A, then the efficiency is 50% (drop from earlier 60%)

• Obviously, this is an oversize pump because the flow corresponding to the low system resistance will be
higher than desired Hence, the pump has to be throttled to achieve the desired flow. Throttling increases the
head to be overcome by the pump. In this case, head is 76 meters.

Extra energy used = 8000 hrs/yr X 14.9 = 1, 19,200 kWh/annum = BDT 6,55,600/annum (BDT 5.50 per kWh)
In this example, the extra cost of the electricity is more than the cost of a new pump.
Efficient Pumping System Operation
Effect of speed variation
• Q∝N,

• H∝N2

• P∝N3
Where,

Q = Flow rate

H = Head

P = Power absorbed

N = Rotating speed
 Effects of impeller diameter change
• Q∝D,

• H∝D2

• P∝D3
• Diameter changes are generally limited to reducing the
diameter to about 75% of the maximum, i.e. a head reduction to
about 50%. Beyond this, efficiency and NPSH are badly affected.

• It should be noted that if the change in diameter is more than

about 5%, the accuracy of the squared and cubic relationships
can fall off and for precise calculations, the pump
manufacturer’s performance curves should be referred to.
 Pump suction performance
• Pump cavitation occurs when the pressure in the pump inlet drops below the vapor pressure of the
liquid.
Cavitation is often characterized by:
• Loud noise often described as a grinding or “marbles” in the pump

• Loss of capacity (bubbles are now taking up space where liquid should be)

• Pitting damage to parts as material is removed by the collapsing bubbles

Net Positive Suction Head Available -(NPSHA): Liquid pressure at the suction -the liquid
vapourpressure.
NPSH Required -(NPSHR): The value of NPSH needed at the pump suction to prevent the pump from
cavitation.
If NPSHA < NPSHR cavitation will occur
Pump suction performance
 Flow Control Strategies
Pump control by varying speed
Speed variation affects pump performance by shifting the duty point along the system curve, influencing
efficiency and energy consumption. Key points:
• Friction Loss Systems: In systems dominated by friction loss, speed control maintains the pump near its
best efficiency point. The affinity laws ensure significant energy savings as flow and head decrease with
speed.
• Static Head Systems: Systems with high static head see reduced proportionality between speed and flow.
Lower speeds may drop efficiency, causing potential damage (e.g., overheating when flow and head drop
to zero). Proper pump selection and consultation with manufacturers are necessary for safe operation.
• Advantages of Speed Control: Speed control is more efficient than throttling with a valve, reducing energy
consumption and hydraulic forces on the impeller. This minimizes shaft stress, bearing loads, and wear.
• Considerations: High speeds increase power demand, vibration, noise, and wear. Mechanical seals are
typically unaffected by low speeds, but higher speeds require review for seal chamber pressure effects.
Gas seals require a minimum speed for effective operation.
• Conclusion: Variable speed control is ideal for energy efficiency but must be optimized and analyzed case
by case for systems with static head to avoid operational issues
 Lowest speed line doesn't
Flow Control Strategies intersect system curve so
flow will be zero

No static head High static head

 Pumps in parallel switched to meet
Flow Control Strategies demand
• Another energy efficient method
of flow control, particularly for
systems where static head is a
high proportion of the total, is to
install two or more pumps to
operate in parallel. Variation of
flow rate is achieved by switching
on and off additional pumps to
meet demand.
 Pumps in parallel switched to meet
demand
Flow Control Strategies • the operating point of the
pumps on their performance
curves moves to a higher head
and hence lower flow rate per
pump, as more pumps are started.
It is also apparent that the flow
rate with two pumps running is
not double that of a single pump.
• If the system head were only
static, then flow rate would
be proportional to the number
of pumps operating.
Flow Control Strategies
Stop/start control
The stop/start control method manages flow by turning
pumps on and off, supported by system storage like
reservoirs, tanks, or pressure vessels. This approach
enables pumps to operate at optimal duty points,
minimizing energy use when pumps are off.
Flow
Control
Strategies

F LO W CON TR O L
VALVE
Flow Control Strategies

By-pass control
• With this control approach, the pump runs continuously at the maximum process demand duty
with a permanent by-pass line attached to the outlet. When a lower flow is required the
surplus liquid is bypassed and returned to the supply source.
Fixed Flow reduction: Impeller trimming
• Impeller trimming refers to the process of machining the diameter of an impeller to reduce the
energy added to the system liquid.
• Impeller trimming offers a useful correction to pumps that, through overly conservative design
practices or changes in system loads are oversized for their application.
• Consequently, impeller diameters are rarely reduced below 75 percent of their original size.
Flow Control Strategies

After Impeller Trimming

Before Impeller
Trimming
 Flow Control Strategies
Meeting variable flow reduction
Pump speed adjustment is the most energy-efficient way to control flow, achieved through multiple-speed
motors or variable speed drives (VSDs)
• Multiple-Speed Motors:
• Contain separate windings for each speed.
• More expensive and less efficient than single-speed motors.
• Lack fine speed control, offering only discrete speed levels.

• Variable Speed Drives (VSDs):

• Offer continuous speed control.
• Types include mechanical (hydraulic clutches, fluid couplings) and electrical systems (eddy current clutches, variable
frequency drives - VFDs).
• VFDs are the most popular, adjusting motor speed by altering power frequency.
• Provide higher pump efficiency and reduce energy and maintenance costs by minimizing throttling and bypass flow
losses.
• Enable "soft start" with reduced startup current, minimizing wear on motors and controllers.
Flow Control Strategies EFFEC T OF VFD
•W H E N A V F D S LO W S A P U M P,
IT S HEA D/FLO W A ND POWE R
C U RV E S D R O P D O W N A N D T O
T HE L EFT A ND IT S E FF I CIE NCY
C U RV E S H I F TS T O T H E L E F T .
T HIS E FF I CIE NCY RE SP ON SE
P R OV I D E S A N E S S E N T I A L C O S T
A D VA N TA G E BY K E E P I N G T H E
O P E R AT I N G E FF I CIE NCY AS
HIGH A S P OSS IBL E ACROSS
VA R I AT I O N S I N T H E S Y S T E M ’ S
F LO W D E M A N D
Energy Conservation Opportunities in Pumping Systems
• Ensure adequate NPSH at site of installation.

• Ensure availability of basic instruments at pumps like pressure gauges, flow meters.

• Operate pumps near Best Efficiency Point.

• Modify pumping system and pumps losses to minimize throttling.

• Adapt to wide load variation with variable speed drives or sequenced control of multiple units.
• Use booster pumps for small loads requiring higher pressures.

• Increase liquid temperature differentials to reduce pumping rates in case of heat exchangers

• Separate High Pressure and Low Pressure systems

• Repair seals and packing to minimize water loss by dripping.

• •Balance the system to minimize flows and reduce pump power requirements.
Energy Conservation Opportunities in Pumping Systems
• Conduct water balance to minimize water consumption.

• Avoid cooling water re-circulation in DG sets, air compressors, refrigeration systems, cooling
towers feed water pumps, condenser pumps and process pumps.
• In multiple pump operations, carefully combine the operation of pumps to avoid throttling.

• Provide booster pump for few areas of higher head.

• Replace old pumps by energy efficient pumps.

• In the case of over designed pump, provide variable speed drive, or downsize / replace
impeller or replace with correct sized pump for efficient operation.
• Optimize number of stages in multi-stage pump in case of head margins.

• Reduce system resistance by pressure drop assessment and pipe size optimization.
 Problem
• The cooling water circuit of a process industry is depicted in the figure below. Cooling water is
pumped to three heat exchangers via pipes A, B and C where flow is throttled depending upon the
requirement. The diameter of pipes and measured velocities with non-contact ultrasonic flow
meter in each pipe are indicated in the figure.

The following are the other data:

Measured motor power : 50.7 kW Motor
efficiency at operating load : 90%
Pump discharge pressure :3.4 kg/cm2
Suction head : 2 meters
Determine the efficiency of the pump.
Solution
Introduction
• Cooling towers are a very important part of Cooling Tower
many chemical plants.
• The primary task of a cooling tower is to reject
heat into the atmosphere.
• They represent a relatively inexpensive and
dependable means of removing low-grade heat
from cooling water.
• The make-up water source is used to replenish
water lost to evaporation.
• Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the
cooling tower.
• The water exits the cooling tower and is sent
back to the exchangers or to other units for
further cooling
Classification

Cooling
Tower

Mechanical
Natural Draft
Draft

Counter
Counter flow Cross flow
flows
forced draft. induced draft.
induced draft.
 Classification
A cooling tower consists of several key components that work together to remove heat from a
system by evaporative cooling. The main components include:
1. Fill Media – Increases the surface area for water and air interaction, enhancing heat transfer.

2. Drift Eliminators – Prevent water droplets from escaping with the exhaust air, reducing water

loss.
3. Cooling Water Basin – Collects cooled water at the bottom of the tower before recirculation.

4. Nozzles – Distribute warm water over the fill media for efficient cooling.

5. Fans and Fan Drive System – Induce or force airflow through the tower to aid evaporation.

6. Air Inlet Louvers – Control airflow and minimize splash-out.

7. Casing and Structure – Encloses and supports the cooling tower components.

8. Pump and Piping System – Circulates water between the cooling tower and the system being

cooled.
Each component plays a crucial role in ensuring efficient heat dissipation and optimal cooling
Fanless Cooling Towers
Basis of Theory
• Fanless cooling tower (Figure 7.3) takes advantage of the
water pressure of the existing water circulation pump
forming a water screen with specially designed ejection
headers. As the water flows through the nozzles at high
velocity, based on a ejector principle, low pressure is
created which sucks the ambient cold air into the tower.
The kinetic energy of Water entering the cooling tower is
converted into kinetic energy of the air by the use of
specially designed ejector nozzles. Water Pressure
required in the Jet Ejector Nozzles is min. 0.5 Bar.
• The incoming air passes through the fills at the bottom
while the ejected water falls on the fills thus enabling a
counter current heat exchange between water and air. Drift
eliminators are provided to contain the drift losses.
 Features of Fanless Cooling Tower
Energy saving
• Since fans are not used in this type of cooling there is a considerable saving of power even though
marginally higher power consumption is required for the pump.
Low noise
• The noises of traditional cooling tower originate from the operating fans and motors. Further the vibration
caused by these transmission units reinforces the noise resonance. This problem is eliminated in fanless
cooling tower since no fan/motor is used.
Water saving
• The velocity of water is less than that in conventional cooling tower. In combination with high efficiency
drift eliminators this can reduce the drift loss to 0.001%
Low maintenance cost
• Since the fanless cooling tower has no mechanical equipment such as fan, motor, gearbox etc. there is
hardly any maintenance required, provided the quality of circulation water is kept clean and well
maintained
 Cooling Tower Performance
• “Range” is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature

• “Approach” is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold water temperature
and ambient wet bulb temperature. Although, both range and approach should be
monitored, the ‘Approach’ is a better indicator of cooling tower performance
• Cooling tower effectiveness= Range / (Range + Approach).

• Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in kcal/hr or TR, given, Q=m × Cp× Range

• Evaporation loss is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty. An empirical
relation used often is:
Evaporation Loss (m3/hr) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate (m3/hr) x (T1-T2)
Tl -T2 = Temperature difference between inlet and outlet water.
Cooling
Tower
Performance
Cooling Tower Performance
• Blow Down = Evaporation Loss / (C.O.C. - 1)

• Cycles of concentration (COC) is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to the dissolved solids in
makeup water.
Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio
• Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio, of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and the air mass flow rates. Against
design values, seasonal variations require adjustment and tuning of water and air flow rates to get the best
cooling tower effectiveness through measures like water box loading changes, blade angle adjustments.
• Thermodynamics also dictate that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the heat absorbed by the
surrounding air:
L (T1 –T2) = G (h2 – h1)
L/G= liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1= hot water temperature (0C)
T2=cold water temperature (0C)
h2= enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature (same units as above)
h1=enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature (same units as above)
Factors Affecting Cooling Tower Size
• Cooling tower size is affected by the heat load, range, approach,
and WBT. When three of these four quantities are held constant,
tower size varies in the following manner:
• Directly with the heat load

• Inversely with the range

• Inversely with the approach

• Inversely with the entering WBT

While air at a higher wet-
bulb temperature can
absorb more heat per unit
volume, the cooling tower's
overall performance will
depend on how closely the
tower can cool water to the
wet-bulb temperature.
Therefore, a high wet-bulb
temperature limits the
minimum achievable cold
water temperature,
reducing the tower's
efficiency in very humid or
hot conditions.
4o
Function of Fill media in a Cooling Tower
Heat exchange between air and water is influenced by surface area of heat exchange, time of
heat exchange (interaction) and turbulence in water effecting thoroughness of intermixing. Fill
media in a cooling tower is responsible to achieve all of above.
• Splash and Film Fill Media: As the name indicates, splash fill media generates the required
heat exchange area by splashing action of water over fill media and hence breaking into
smaller water droplets. Thus, surface of heat exchange is the surface area of the water
droplets, which is in contact with air.
• Film Fill and its Advantages

• In a film fill, water forms a thin film on either side of the fill sheets. Thus area of heat exchange
is the surface area of the fill sheets, which is in contact with air.
Function of Fill media in a Cooling Tower

Due to fewer requirements of air and pumping head, there is a

tremendous saving in power with the invention of film fill.
Recently, low-clog film fills with higher flute sizes have been
developed to handle high turbid waters. For sea water, low clog
film fills are considered as the best choice in terms of power
saving and performance compared to conventional splash type
fills.
Solution to the Problems
Energy saving opportunities in CT
Chapter 10

• Energy Efficiency and Conservation in

Buildings
Introduction

• There are several different uses of energy in buildings. The major

uses are for lighting, heating, cooling, power delivery to equipment
and appliances, and domestic water. The amount that each
contributes to the total energy use varies according to the climate,
type of building, number of working hours and time of year
• Industrial and commercial buildings are dissimilar in terms of
energy use, as industries primarily use large quantities of energy
for specialized processes whereas buildings use the major amount
of energy for human comfort
BNBC Code
• In order to regulate tie technical details of building construction and to maintain the standard
of construction the Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC) was first published it 1993.
• The updated version of BNBC, incorporated with addition of energy efficiency requirement of
buildings in near future will be the core program for promoting EE&C in Buildings and contain
the following requirement on building energy efficiency:
a. Heat insulation and/or ventilation performance of building envelope
b. Energy efficiency of building equipment (HVAC, lighting, fans, hot water supply, lift, escalator,
renewable energy options)
c. Water efficiency and management and Sanitation
d. Roof gardening and vegetation
Building Energy Efficiency & Environment Rating
(BEEER)
• To ensure the energy efficiency in buildings, SREDA has developed the rating system for buildings and
act as the implementation and execution body for the Building Energy Efficiency & Environment Rating
(BEEER)➢ Promote green and sustainable building practices on the supply and demand side of
Bangladesh’s construction sector;
• ➢ Contribute to climate change mitigation by saving resources in the building sector while enhancing
economic prosperity and competitiveness, as well as alleviating poverty by considering both green and
social standards;
• ➢ Establish a building energy efficiency and environmental rating systems serving as a
standard/reference for green building construction practices;

• ➢ Enhance sustainable consumption in the building sector through a rating system, providing consumer
information and a distinctive grade for sustainable buildings;

• ➢ Mobilize and capacitate key stakeholders to get involved in green building design and construction.

• ➢ Promote green equipment and construction materials, fixtures and make the market ready.

• ➢ Develop the capacity of architects and Engineers, Energy Managers & Energy Auditors in Green
 Energy Efficiency Measures in Buildings:
Air-Conditioning System:
Weather stripping of Windows and Doors
• Minimize exfiltration of conditioned air and infiltration of external un-conditioned air through leaky windows
and doors by incorporating effective means of weather stripping. Self-closing doors should also be
provided where heavy traffic of people is anticipated.
Temperature and Humidity Setting
• Ensure human comfort by setting the temperature to between 23°C and 25°C and the relative humidity
between 55% and 65%.
Chilled Water Leaving Temperature
• Ensure higher chiller energy efficiency by maintaining the chilled water leaving temperature at or above 7°
C. As a rule of thumb, the efficiency of a centrifugal chiller increases by about 2% for every 1° C rise in the
chilled water leaving temperature.
Air Filter Condition
• Maintain the filter in a clean condition. This will improve the heat transfer between air and chilled water and
correspondingly reduce the energy consumption.
 Energy Efficiency Measures in Buildings:
Chilled Water Pipes and Air Ducts
• Ensure that the insulation for the chilled water pipes and ducting system is maintained in good condition.

• This helps to prevent heat gain from the surroundings.

Chiller Condenser Tubes

• Ensure that mechanical cleaning of the tubes is carried out at least once every six months. Fouling in the
condenser tubes in the form of slime and scales reduces the heat transfer of the condenser tubes and
thereby reducing the energy efficiency of the chiller.
Cooling Towers
• Ensure that the cooling towers are clean to allow for maximum heat transfer so that the temperature of
the water returning to the condenser is less than or equal to the ambient temperature.
Air-handling Unit Fan Speed
• Install devices such as frequency converters to vary the fan speed. This will reduce the energy
consumption of the fan motor by as much as 15%.
 Energy Efficiency Measures in Buildings:
Lighting System:
• All lighting systems generate heat that needs to be dissipated. By designing energy efficient
lighting system that integrates day lighting and good controls, heat gains can be reduced
significantly. This can reduce the size of the HVAC system resulting in first-cost savings.
• Orient the building to minimize building exposure to the east and west and maximize glazing on
the south and north exposures.
• Switch off Lights When Not in Use

• Provision of Separate Switches for Peripheral Lighting

• Install High Efficiency Lighting System

• Cleaning of Lights and Fixtures

• Use Light Colors for Walls, Floors and Ceilings

• Task Lighting
Energy Efficiency Measures in Buildings:

Building Water Pumping Systems

The pumps used in the buildings are for chilled water circulation, cooling water circulation,
domestic water, hot water and sewage water. The following energy conservation measures are
adopted to reduce energy consumption in water pumping in buildings:
• Installation of high efficiency pumps
• Operation of pumps in parallel
• Auto pump operation with low level/high level flow control systems.
• Installation of variable frequency drive for chiller water and cooling water pumps
Energy Efficiency Measures in Buildings:
Factors That Affect Energy Consumption in Elevators and Escalator System:
✓ Friction losses incurred while travelling.
✓ Dynamic losses while starting and stopping.
✓ Lifting (or lowering) work done, potential energy transfer.
✓ Regeneration into the supply system.
Escalators and Elevators
General Principles to Achieve Energy Efficiency
✓ Specify energy efficiency equipment for the system.
✓ Do not over design the system.
✓ Suitable zoning arrangement.
✓ Suitable control and energy management of lift equipment
✓ Use lightweight materials for lift car decoration.
✓ Good housekeeping.
Building Energy Management System (BEMS)
Energy performance Index: (EPI)

Energy Performance Index (EPI) in kWh / sq m/ year will be

considered for rating the building. Bandwidths for Energy
Performance Index for different climatic zones have been developed
based on percentage air-conditioned space. For example a building
in a composite climatic zone like Dhaka and having air conditioned
area greater than 50% of their built up area, the bandwidths of EPI
range between 190-90 kWh/sq m/year. Thus a building would get a
5-Star rating if its EPI falls below 90 kWh/sq m/year and 1 Star if it
is between 165-190 kWh/ sq m/year.
 Chapter 9
D I E S E L / N A T U R A L G A S P O W E R G E N E RA T IN G
SYSTEM
 Compression Ignition/ Diesel Engine
1st : Induction stroke - while the inlet valve is open, the descending piston draws in fresh air.
2nd : Compression stroke -while the valves are closed, the air is compressed to a pressure of up to
25 bar.
3rd : Ignition and power stroke - fuel is injected, while the valves are closed (fuel injection actually
starts at the end of the previous stroke), the fuel ignites spontaneously and the piston is forced
downwards by the combustion gases.
4th : Exhaust stroke - the exhaust valve is open and the rising piston discharges the spent gases
from the cylinder
Gas Engine
During the intake period, gas is
also fed into a small pre chamber,
where the gas mixture is rich
compared to the gas in the
cylinder. At the end of the
compression phase the gas/air
mixture in the pre chamber is
ignited by a spark plug. The flames
from the nozzle of the pre chamber
ignite the gas/air mixture in the
whole cylinder
DG Set as a System
Selection Considerations
• To select the most suitable engine for an application, key factors include power and speed. The
engine should have 10-20% more power than the maximum load to prevent overloading.
• Speed, measured in RPM, should match the load's requirement for efficiency, with diesel
engines typically running at 1300-3000 RPM. Running at rated speed ensures fuel efficiency
and prevents deposits.
• For generators, speed matching allows direct coupling; otherwise, gear systems add cost and
reduce efficiency.
• Other considerations include cooling, environmental conditions, fuel quality, maintenance,
control system, and ambient conditions.
• Efficiency depends on load factor, engine size, and type.

• Load factor=(Average load/ peak load)

Advantages of adopting Diesel Power Plants are:

• • Low installation cost

• • Short delivery periods and installation period

• • Higher efficiency (as high as 43 -45 %)

• • More efficient plant performance under part loads

• • Suitable for different type of fuels such as low sulphur heavy stock and heavy fuel oil in case
of large capacities.
• • Minimum cooling water requirements,

• • Adopted with air cooled heat exchanger in areas where water is not available

• • Short start up time

Selection and Installation Factors
• Sizing of a Genset:

a) If the DG set is required for 100% standby, then the entire connected load in HP / kVA should
be added. After finding out the diversity factor, the correct capacity of a DG set can be found out.
• Connected Load = 650 kW

• Diversity Factor = 0.54 (Demand / Connected load)

• Max. Demand = 650 x 0.54 = 350 kW

• % Loading = 70 (To prevent over loading)

• Set rating = 350/0.7 = 500 kW

• At 0.8 PF, rating = 625 kVA (Actual Power to apparent power)

Capacity Combinations in DG set selection
One Large DG Set
• Economical choice – Lower initial investment, requires less space, and is simpler to operate
and maintain.
• Less flexibility – If the load requirement fluctuates or if the generator fails, there is no backup.
Multiple DG Sets in Parallel
Flexibility – Only the required number of DG sets need to run, adjusting power generation based
on the actual load.
Redundancy/Standby – One DG can act as a 100% standby during low-demand periods, ensuring
uninterrupted power.
Efficient operation – If power demand is low, one DG can be shut down while the other runs at an
optimal load (at least 50% capacity) for better fuel efficiency.
Higher cost and complexity – More initial investment, more space required, and increased
maintenance efforts.
Water cooled Vs Air cooled DG set
Water-Cooled DG Sets
• Better cooling efficiency – Preferred because users fear engine overheating in hot weather.
Required for large DG sets – Larger engines produce more heat, requiring water cooling to
maintain safe operating temperatures.
Requires maintenance – The cooling system needs regular checks to ensure water temperature
remains within limits and avoid scaling or coolant leaks.
Air-Cooled DG Sets
• Equally good in performance – If proper ventilation is ensured, air-cooled engines can work
just as well.
Suitable for lower capacities – Small DG sets generate less heat, making air cooling sufficient.
Ventilation is critical – Needs adequate cross-ventilation so that cool air flows through the
radiator, preventing overheating.
Conclusion:
• For small DG sets → Air cooling is feasible if proper ventilation is ensured.
• For large DG sets → Water cooling is necessary to prevent overheating, especially in summer
months.
Parallel Operation with Grid
• Possible with approval – Requires consultation with electricity authorities before operating
in parallel with the grid.
• Some utilities prohibit it – Many electricity providers require consumers to sign an
undertaking not to run DG sets in parallel with the grid due to operational risks.
• Why Utilities Restrict Parallel Operation?

• The grid is an infinite bus – The grid capacity is huge compared to a small DG set, making
synchronization difficult.
• Risk of power flow issues – Even with protection devices like reverse power relay, voltage,
and frequency relays, operational risks remain.
Motor Starting & DG Load Capacity
• When squirrel cage induction motors start, they draw a high starting current (up to 6 times the
rated current for a few seconds). This can cause voltage dips in the system.
• Key Considerations for DG Sizing:

• The starting current should not exceed 200% of the DG alternator’s full load capacity to ensure
stable voltage and frequency.
• The largest motor that can be started using Direct-On-Line (DOL) starting is typically 50% of the
kVA rating of the DG set.
How to Start Larger Motors?
Using soft starting methods can reduce the starting current and allow larger motors to run on the
same DG set:
• Star-Delta Starter or Auto Transformer Starter can increase the maximum motor size to 75% of
the DG kVA rating instead of just 50%.
 Load Balance
• Why is Load Balancing Important?

• In a three-phase system, the total electrical load should be evenly distributed across all three
phases. If one phase carries significantly more or less load than the others (unbalanced load), it
can cause:
• Efficient operation – The generator works optimally when loads are balanced.
• Overheating of the alternator – The alternator’s windings heat up due to uneven current
distribution.
• Unbalanced output voltages – Voltage in different phases may vary, leading to instability and
potential damage to sensitive electrical equipment.
Maximum Allowable Unbalanced Load
To ensure stable operation, the difference in load between any two phases should not exceed 10% of
the generator’s rated capacity.
Neutral Earthing
• Electrical safety regulations mandate two independent earthing points to
ensure:
• Protection against earth faults – If a fault occurs (such as insulation
failure), current safely flows to the earth, preventing shocks and equipment
damage.
• Safe dissipation of leakage current – Any leakage from the generator’s
body or electrical components is drained away, reducing electric shock risks.
Operational Factors: Load Pattern & DG Set Capacity
• Assessing Load – The average load can be determined by logging current at the main switchboard.
• Understanding Overload on DG Sets – Unlike grid power, small overloads can significantly impact
DG sets.
o Diesel engines can handle 10% overload for 1 hour in 12 hours.
o Alternators can handle 50% overload for 15 seconds as per standards.

o DG selection should ensure overloads stay within these limits.

• Steady Load for Efficiency – DG sets perform best with steady loads and when the engine operates
above 50% capacity.
• Optimizing Efficiency –
o Engine efficiency is best at an optimal % load vs. fuel consumption (refer to manufacturer’s curves).
o Alternators are most efficient at 70% or higher loading.

• Key Consideration – DG set selection should aim for high efficiency by maintaining optimal kW, kVA,
and fuel consumption levels based on manufacturer data.
Operational Factors: Sequencing of Load
• DG Set Limitations – Diesel generators have limits on handling sudden
(transient) loads, affecting both engine power (kW) and generator capacity
(kVA).
• Impact of Base Load – Existing load reduces the DG’s ability to handle
additional transient loads and increases voltage dips in AC generators.
• Optimal Load Sequencing – To minimize voltage drops and maximize
efficiency:
• Start the load with the highest transient kVA first (e.g., large motors).
• Gradually add smaller loads in descending order of starting kVA.

• Benefits – Ensures stable operation, optimal generator sizing, and better

transient load handling.
Operational Factors: Load pattern
• Load Variation – Many setups experience fluctuating power
demand throughout the day (e.g., different shifts).
• Parallel Operation Advantage – Running multiple DG sets in parallel
allows:
o Switching on/off DG sets as needed, improving efficiency.
o Optimal fuel consumption by operating near the best efficiency point.
o Flexibility in handling changing power demands.

• Critical vs. Non-Critical Loads –

o Critical loads (essential systems) can have a dedicated DG set for reliability.
o Non-critical loads can be managed separately, ensuring efficient power
distribution.
 Operational Factors: Load Characteristics

• Load Characteristics Impact Efficiency – Certain inherent load

properties affect the DG set’s performance and cannot be directly
controlled by the generator.
• Not Generator-Dependent – These characteristics are purely load-
dependent and arise from the nature of connected equipment.
• Minimizing Negative Effects – While the DG set cannot change these
factors, their impact can be reduced through proper load
management, sequencing, and system design.
 Operational Factors: Power Factor
• Power Factor Depends on Load – The DG set does not control power factor; it is determined by the
connected load.
• Standard Power Factor – AC generators are designed for a 0.8 lagging power factor as per standards.

• Effects of Low Power Factor –

o Requires higher excitation current, leading to increased losses.
o Oversizing the generator for low power factor reduces efficiency and increases costs.

• Solution – Use power factor improvement capacitors for better efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

Lagging Power Factor (Inductive Load)

Definition – When current lags behind voltage, the power factor is lagging.
Cause – Happens in inductive loads (e.g., motors, transformers, fans).
Effect – Requires more reactive power (kVAR), increasing generator losses and reducing efficiency.
Example – Most industrial loads (e.g., motors) have a lagging PF (~0.8 lagging)
Operational Factors:
Unbalanced Load
• Unbalanced loads cause voltage imbalance and extra heating in the generator.

• Motor loads suffer additional losses when fed with unbalanced voltages.

• Solution – Distribute loads evenly or use a single-phase generator if single-phase loads

dominate.

Controlling Transient (temporary) load

• Transient loads cause voltage dips, requiring a specially designed generator in some cases.

• Custom engine-generator combinations may be needed to handle these dips efficiently.

• Benefit – Prevents oversizing the engine, reducing capital and running costs while ensuring
stable operation
Operational FactorsL: Special Loads

• Special loads (e.g., rectifiers, welding, furnaces) require application checks for
proper DG set compatibility.
• Consult manufacturers to ensure the DG set meets power quality
requirements.
• Sensitive loads (voltage/frequency-sensitive) should be segregated and
supplied via a dedicated DG-driven generator.
• Benefit – Avoids unnecessarily expensive DG sets by limiting special designs
to critical loads only.
Waste Heat Recovery in DG Sets
DG Set Loading & Waste Heat Recovery
• Maintain DG loading above 60% to ensure stable flue gas temperature and
avoid cold-end corrosion in the heat recovery unit.
• Fluctuations & underloading cause erratic flue gas flow, reducing heat
recovery efficiency.
• Continuous DG operation improves thermal efficiency and cost benefits.

• Back pressure in the gas path should be kept below 250-300 mmWC to avoid
performance issues.
• Optimized heat recovery setups (e.g., waste heat boilers + vapor absorption
chillers) can improve efficiency, providing chilled water at 8°C using recovered
steam
 Energy Performance Assessment of DG Sets
1) Ensure reliability of all instruments used for trial.
2) Collect technical literature, characteristics, and specifications of the plant.
3) Conduct a 2 hour trial on the DG set, ensuring a steady load, wherein the following measurements are
logged at 15 minutes intervals.
a) Fuel consumption (by dip level or by flow meter)
b) Amps, volts, PF, kW, kWh
c) Intake air temperature, Relative Humidity (RH)
d) Intake cooling water temperature
e) Cylinder-wise exhaust temperature (as an indication of engine loading)
f) Turbocharger RPM (as an indication of loading on engine)
g) Charge air pressure (as an indication of engine loading)
h) Cooling water temperature before and after charge air cooler (as an indication of cooler performance)
i) Stack gas temperature before and after turbocharger (as an indication of turbocharger performance)
 Energy Performance Assessment of DG Sets
4) The fuel oil/diesel analysis is referred to from an oil company data.
5) Analysis: The trial data is to be analysed with respect to:
a) Average alternator loading.
b) Average engine loading.
c) Percentage loading on alternator.
d) Percentage loading on engine.
e) Specific power generation kWh/liter.
f) Comments on Turbocharger performance based on RPM and gas temperature difference.
g) Comments on charge air cooler performance.
h) Comments on load distribution among various cylinders (based on exhaust temperature, the
temperature to be i 5% of mean and high/low values indicate disturbed condition).
 Energy Saving Measures for DC Sets
a) Ensure steady load conditions on the DG set, and provide cold, dust free air at intake (use of air washers for large sets,
in case of dry, hot weather, can be considered).
b) Improve air filtration.
c) Ensure fuel oil storage, handling and preparation as per manufacturer’s guidelines/oil company data.
d) Consider fuel oil additives in case they benefit fuel oil properties for DG set usage.
e) Calibrate fuel injection pumps frequently.
f) Ensure compliance with maintenance checklist.
g) Ensure steady load conditions, avoiding fluctuations, imbalance in phases, harmonic loads.
h) In case of a base load operation, consider waste heat recovery system adoption for steam generation or refrigeration
chiller unit incorporation. Even the Jacket Cooling Water is amenable for heat recovery, vapour absorption system
adoption.
i) In terms of fuel cost economy, consider partial use of biomass gas for generation. Ensure tar removal from the gas for
improving availability of the engine in the long run.
j) Consider parallel operation among the DG sets for improved loading and fuel economy thereof.
k) Carryout regular field trials to monitor DG set performance, and maintenance planning as per requirements
 Problem
• ADG set is operating at 600 kW load with 450°C exhaust gas temperature. The DG
set generates 8 kg of exhaust gas/ kWh generated. The specific heat of gas at 450°C
is 0.25 kcal/ kg°C. A heat recovery boiler is installed after which the exhaust
temperature drops to 230°C. How much steam will be generated at 3 kg/ cm2 with
enthalpy of 650.57 kcal/ kg. Assume boiler feed water temperature as 80°C.
• Waste Heat Recovery = (600 kWh x 8 kg gas generated/ kWh output) x 0.25 kcal/ kg
°C x (450°C-230 °C) =2,64,000 kcal/hr
• Steam generation = 2,64,000 kcal/hr/ (650.57 — 80) = 462.7 kg/ hr.
Chapter 8:
Lighting
System
Primary considerations to ensure energy efficiency in lighting systems

• i. Selection of the most efficient light source possible in order to

minimize electricity consumption and cost.
• ii. Matching the proper lamp type to the intended work task or
aesthetic application, consistent with color, brightness control and
other requirements.
• iii. Establishing adequate light levels
Basic Parameters and Terms in Lighting System
Luminous flux: The luminous flux describes the quantity of light emitted by a light source. It is a
measure of a lamp’s economic efficiency. The most common measurement or unit of luminous
flux is the lumen (lm).
Illuminance (E): is the quotient of the luminous flux incident on an element of the surface at a
point of surface containing the point, by the area of that element. The lighting level produced by a
lighting installation is usually qualified by the illuminance produced on a specified plane. In most
cases, this plane is the major plane of the tasks carried out in the interior
• Lux (lX) is the metric unit of measure for illuminance of a surface. One lux is equal to one
lumen per square meter.

Where, E = Illuminance in lux (lm/m2), I = Luminous flux in lumen (lm) and d = distance in m
Basic Parameters and Terms in Lighting System

• Average maintained illuminance: is the average of illuminance (lux) levels measured at various
points in a defined area.
• Circuit Watts: is the total power drawn by lamps and ballasts in a lighting circuit under
assessment.
• Luminous Efficacy (lm/W): is the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power
consumed by the lamp.
• Installed Load Efficacy: is the average maintained illuminance provided on a horizontal
working plane per circuit watt with general lighting of an interior. Unit: lux per Watt per square
metre (luX/W/m2).
Basic Parameters and Terms in Lighting System
• Correlated Colour Temperature (CCT)
is a measurement that describes the
perceived color of a light source,
indicating how "warm" or "cool" it
appears, and is measured in Kelvin
(K); essentially, it tells you how
closely the color of a light matches
the color of a blackbody at a specific
temperature, with lower CCTs
appearing warmer (yellowish) and
higher CCTs appearing cooler (bluish)
Basic Parameters and Terms in Lighting System
• Color Rendering Index: It
measures the ability of light
source to accurately reproduce
colors and its measured on a
scale of 0 to 100.
• CRI 75 is often considered
good.
• CRI 85 is very good

• CRI 95 is excellent
Lamp Type Description
Traditional bulb with a filament that glows when heated. High energy
Incandescent Lamp
consumption, low lifespan.
A type of incandescent lamp with halogen gas for improved brightness
Halogen Lamp
and lifespan.
Uses a gas-discharge process and phosphor coating for high efficiency
Fluorescent Tube Lamp (FTL)
and cooler operation.
A smaller, spiral version of FTLs, offering energy efficiency with a
Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)
longer lifespan than incandescent bulbs.
High-efficiency lamp emitting yellow-orange light, commonly used for
Sodium Vapor Lamp
street lighting.
Produces bright white or bluish light, used for industrial and street
Mercury Vapor Lamp
lighting. Contains mercury.
Bright white light with good color rendering, used in stadiums and
Metal Halide Lamp
commercial spaces.
Highly energy-efficient, long-lasting, and available in various colors and
LED Lamp
brightness levels.
Uses electromagnetic fields to generate light, with long lifespan and
Induction Lamp
high efficiency.
 Sodium vapor lamp

Incandescent
lamp
LED lamp
CFL lamp

High pressure sodium

Mercury Induction lamp vapour lamp
vapour lamp
Halogen lamp
Recommended Illumination
Zonal Cavity Method for Indoor Lighting Calc

• The Zonal Cavity Method (sometimes called the Lumen Method) is the currently accepted
method for calculating average illuminance levels for indoor areas
The step by step process of lighting design
• Step 1: Decide the required illuminance on work plane. A preliminary assessment must be
made of the type of lighting required, a decision most often made as a function of both
aesthetics and economics. For normal office work, illuminance of200 lux is desired.
• Step-2: Collect the room data in the format given below
The step by step process of lighting design
• Step 1: Decide the required illuminance on work plane. A preliminary assessment must be
made of the type of lighting required, a decision most often made as a function of both
aesthetics and economics. For normal office work, illuminance of200 lux is desired.
• Step-2: Collect the room data in the format given below
The step by step process of lighting design
• Typical reflectance values for using in L5, L6, L7 are:

• Step-3: Calculate room index

The step by step process of lighting design
• Step 4: Calculate utilization factor

Utilisation factor is defined as the percent of rated bare-lamp lumens that exit the luminaire and
reach the work plane.
 The step by step process of lighting design
• Step 5: To calculate the number of fittings required, the following formula is usedWhere,

N = Number of Fittings
E = Lux Level Required on Working Plane
A = Area of Room (L x W)
F = Total Flux (Lumens) from all the Lamps in one Fitting
UF = Utilisation Factor from the Table for the Fitting to be Used
LLF = Light Loss Factor. This takes account of the depreciation
over time of lamp output and dirt accumulation on the fitting and walls of the building.
Light output = 3050 Lumens (Single Lamp)
LLF = Lamp lumen MF x Luminaire MF x Room surface MF
Where, MF = Maintenance Factor
The step by step process of lighting design
• Typical LLF values

Twin Tube fixture

The step by step process of lighting design
Step 6: Space the luminaires to achieve desired uniformity
• Space-to-Height Ratio (SHR) is ratio refers to the spacing between luminaires relative to their
mounting height. Every luminaire will have a recommended space to height ratio.
• Uniformity ratio: is the ratio of minimum illuminance to average illuminance. A higher
uniformity ratio means the light is evenly spread, reducing shadows and contrast. In earlier
design was kept at 0.8. Then a suitable space to height ratio is specified to achieve this
uniformity. In modern designs incorporating energy efficiency and task lighting the emerging
concept is to provide a uniformity of 0.33 to 0.1 depending on the tasks.
• Suppose in our case the SHR is specified as 1.5

• If the actual ratio is more than the recommended values, the uniformity of lighting will be less
and vise versa.
• So, standard Distance between lumaniers should be = Mounting height × SHR= 2 × 1.5= 3
 The step by step process of
lighting design
Based on the practical dimension of the room
(10X10) we have trialed with 3 lights along work
space 1

• Spacing between luminaires = 10/3 = 3.33 m

• Mounting height (L9-L8) = 2.0 m

2

10m
• So, Space to height ratio (SHR) = 3.33/2.0 = 1.66

• This is close to the limits specified (1.5) and

hence accepted (as a bit higher can be chosen 3
from energy efficiency point of view.
• It is better to choose luminaires with larger
SHR. This can reduce the number of fittings and
connected lighting load.
Optimize the Space-to-Height Ratio (SHR)
Increase SHR carefully to reduce fixtures while maintaining
uniformity.
Adjust uniformity ratio based on task needs—higher where
necessary, lower where possible.
Use efficient LEDs, task lighting, and sensors to cut energy use
without sacrificing comfort.
General
Energy
Saving
Opportunities
General Energy Saving Opportunities
• Use natural day lighting

• De-lamping to reduce excess lighting

• Task lighting

• Selection of high efficiency lamps and luminaries

• Lighting controllers

• Lighting maintenance

• Energy Efficient Lighting Controls

o Occupancy Sensors

o Timed Based Control

o Daylight Linked Control
o Localized Switching
M4: Lighting assessment
Procedure of Assessment
• Calculate the Room Index

• The minimum number of measurement points can be determined from:

Example: Lighting assessment
• Length = 9m,

• Width = 5m,

• Height of luminaires above working plane

(Hm) = 2m
• RI= 9 x 5 / (2 x (9+5)) =1.607

• So, From Table the minimum number of

measurement points is 16
• As it is not possible to approximate a
"square array" of 16 points within such a
rectangle it is necessary to increase the
number of points to say 18, i.e. 6 x 3.
Example: Lighting assessment
• Therefore in this example the spacing between points along rows
along the length of the interior = 9 ÷ 6 = 1.5m and the distance of
the 'end' points from the wall = 1.5 ÷ 2 = 0.75m.
• Similarly the distance between points across the width of the
interior = 5 ÷ 3 = 1.67m with half this value, 0.83m, between the
'end' points and the walls.
• If the grid of the measurement points coincides with that of the
lighting fittings, large errors are possible and the number of
measurement points should be increased to avoid such an
occurrence.
Calculation of the Installed Load Efficacy and Installed Load
Efficacy Ratio of a General Lighting Installation in an Interior
Calculation of the Installed Load Efficacy and Installed Load
Efficacy Ratio of a General Lighting Installation in an Interior
• Target Values for Maintained illuminance on Horizontal Plane
Calculation of the Installed Load Efficacy and Installed Load
Efficacy Ratio of a General Lighting Installation in an Interior

ILER Assessment
• Compare the calculated ILER
with the information in
TableAfter determining the ILER
for the existing lighting
installation, the difference
between the actual ILER and the
best possible (1.0) can be
calculated to estimate the energy
wastage.
• Annual Energy Wastage (in kWh)
= (1.0 - ILER) x Total load (kW) x
annual operating hours (h)
Sample Calculation
Sample Calculation
• ILER of 0.7 means that there is scope for review of the lighting system as per
Table 2.4.
• Annual energy loss = (1 - ILER) x watts x no. of operating hours

• = (1 - 0.7) x 990 x 8 hrs/day x 300 days = 712 kWh/annum

Areas of Improvement
• • Identify natural lighting opportunities such as windows and other openings

• • For industrial lighting, explore the scope for introducing translucent sheets

• • Assess scope for more energy efficient lamps and luminaries

• • Assess scope for rearrangement of lighting fixtures

Chapter 4: Fans & Blowers
• Introduction: Fans and blowers provide air for ventilation and industrial process requirements.
Fans generate a pressure to move air (or gases) against a resistance caused by ducts,
dampers, or other components in a fan system. The fan rotor receives energy from a rotating
shaft and transmits it to the air.
• specific ratio - the ratio of the discharge pressure over the suction pressure

• Differences between Fans, Blower and Compressor

Fan &
Blower
Types
Fan & Blower Types

Centrifugal Fan Axial Fan

Types of centrifugal fans
Types of Radial Fans
Types of Fans,
Characteristics,
and Typical
Applications
Fan Performance Evaluation and Efficient System
Operation
System Characteristics
• System resistance refers to the static
pressure losses in a system, determined
by duct configuration, fittings, and
equipment like filters or cyclones. It
increases with the square of airflow
volume. Narrow ducts and multiple sharp
bends create higher resistance, requiring
more fan power. A system with larger
ducts and fewer bends experiences lower
resistance, allowing greater airflow for
the same fan speed.
Fan Performance Evaluation and Efficient System
Operation
Fan Characteristics
• A fan curve graphically represents a fan's
performance under specific conditions,
showing relationships between airflow,
static pressure, fan speed, and power
consumption. The intersection of the
system curve and static pressure curve
determines the operating point. Changes
in system resistance shift this point,
affecting power requirements. Some fan
curves also include efficiency data to help
optimize system performance.
Air flow control methods • First method is to restrict the air flow
by partially closing a damper in the
system. This action causes a new
system performance curve (SC2)
where the required pressure is
greater for any given air flow. The fan
will now operate at "B" to provide the
reduced air flow Q2 against higher
pressure P2.
• Second method to reduce air flow is
by reducing the speed from N1 to N2,
keeping the damper fully open. The
fan would operate at "C" to provide
the same Q2 air flow, but at a lower
pressure P3.
Fan Laws: Where Q — Flow, SP — Static Pressure, kW —
Power and N — Speed (RPM)
Fan Design and Selection Criteria
• Proper fan selection requires precise determination of airflow and outlet pressure.

• Airflow is based on process needs (e.g., heat transfer or combustion)

• Pressure requirements depend on detailed analysis of pressure drops in ducts, bends, filters,
and expansions.
• Over-sizing fans due to conservative estimates often leads to inefficiency. Once system
requirements are defined, the appropriate fan type and impeller are chosen based on flow,
pressure, and speed. High-speed, small units are cost-effective at high pressures, while large,
low-speed fans are better for low-pressure applications.
Fan Design and Selection Criteria: Fan Performance
and Efficiency
 Fan Design and Selection Criteria: Fan Performance
and Efficiency
• Fan performance and efficiency depend on the fan and impeller type.
o Centrifugal fans vary in pressure development based on hub-to-tip ratios, tip angles, and blade
width.
▪ Forward-curved fans have larger hub-to-tip ratios but lower pressure and efficiency than BWC fans
▪ Backward-curved fans, which offer stable operation and reduced power consumption at higher flows.
▪ Radial fans are simpler and suitable for high-pressure applications.

o Aerofoil centrifugal fans are the most efficient but limited to clean air.
o Axial-flow fans provide lower pressure with variable pitch options for flow control.

• Fan performance is influenced by enclosure design, duct layout, and system

effects, which must be considered during selection.
o Centrifugal fans are ideal for high-pressure, low-to-moderate flow applications,
o axial fans suit high-flow, low-pressure needs. Lifecycle costs depend on design, mounting, and
application-specific factors.
Fan Design and Selection Criteria: Safety margin

• In all cases where the fan requirement is linked to the process/other

equipment, the safety margin is to be decided, based on the discussions with
the process equipment supplier.
• In general, the safety margin can be 5 % over the maximum requirement on
flow rate.
• In the case of boilers,
o the induced draft (ID) fan can be designed with a safety margin of 20 % on volume and 30 %
on head.
o The forced draft (FD) fans and primary air (PA) fans do not require any safety margins.
However, safety margins of 10 % on volume and 20 % on pressure are maintained for FD and
PA fans.
Fan Design and Selection Criteria: System Resistance
and Pressure Drop
• System resistance significantly affects fan performance and efficiency and can change over
time due to process variations, such as duct coating formation, erosion, or equipment
modifications.
• Major changes, like replacing multi-cyclones with ESPs, can shift the operating point and
reduce efficiency, requiring fan adjustments.
• Regular monitoring of system resistance is essential for maintaining efficiency. In centrifugal
fans, system resistance includes all process equipment and ducting at both inlet and outlet. It
depends on gas velocity and density, increasing as flue gas generation rises.
• The fan must be selected to match the system’s operating point at the highest efficiency for
optimal energy use.
Fan Design and Selection Criteria: System Resistance
and Pressure Drop
draft required to overcome the
resistance offered by the boiler to draw
the flue gases -10 mmWc (- ve sign
indicates the suction), the draft required
to draw the flue gases through the
economiser, Air heater and dust control
system are added to estimate the total
resistance at the inlet of the ID fan (i.e. -
10 - 30 - 40 - 150 = - 230 mmWc).
However the ID fan requires a minimum
of 10 mmWc pressure to push the gases
to the bottom of the stack from where
the gases will be taken care by natural
draft into atmosphere. Hence the overall
resistance (pressure drop) to be build up
by the ID fan is the difference between
the outlet pressure and the inlet
pressure [i.e. 10 - (-230) = 240 mmWc].
Flow Control Strategies

Pulley Change Inlet Guide Vanes Damper Controls

Flow Control Strategies
Variable Speed Drives
Variable speed drives offer precise speed control and high
efficiency by adjusting fan speed to match flow
requirements. Since power consumption varies with the
cube of flow, this is the most efficient capacity control
method. However, it may not be cost-effective for systems
with infrequent flow changes. The efficiency of the control
system (fluid coupling, eddy-current, VFD, etc.) should be
considered in power consumption analysis.
Series and Parallel Operation
Parallel fan operation increases airflow but is most
effective in low-resistance systems. Series operation
increases static pressure and works best in high-
resistance systems. Both methods offer flexibility and
reliability but may have unstable performance regions that
should be avoided. Additional controls like dampers, inlet
vanes, or variable-speed drives can enhance efficiency.
Curve for Series and Parallel Operation
Fan
Performance
Assessment

A IR F LOW
M EA SU R EM EN T
Measurement
by Pitot tube
Velocity
pressure/velocity
calculation
Calculation of Velocity
Calculation of Velocity
• Air flow measurements using the pitot tube, in the primary air fan of a coal fired boiler gave
the following data, calculate the velocity of air.
• Air temperature = 38°C

• Velocity pressure = 47 mmWC

• Pitot tube constant, Cp = 0.9

• Air density at 38°C = 1.135 kg /m3

• Find out the velocity of air in m/sec.

Calculation of gas density & Volumetric flow
Fan efficiency
• The equation for determining mechanical efficiency is:

• The static efficiency equation is the same except that the outlet velocity pressure is not added
to the fan static pressure
Energy Savings Opportunities

• Minimizing demands on the fan.

• 1. Minimising excess air level in combustion systems to reduce FD fan and ID

fan load.
• 2. Minimising air in-leaks in hot flue gas path to reduce ID fan load, especially
in case of kilns, boiler plants, furnaces, etc. Cold air in-leaks increase ID fan
load tremendously, due to density increase of flue gases and in-fact choke up
the capacity of fan, resulting as a bottleneck for boiler / furnace itself.
• 3. In-leaks / out-leaks in air conditioning systems also have a major impact on
energy efficiency and fan power consumption and need to be minimized.
 Energy Savings Opportunities
The findings of performance assessment trials will automatically indicate potential areas for
improvement, which could be one or a more of the following:
• 1. Change of impeller by a high efficiency impeller along with cone.

• 2. Change of fan assembly as a whole, by a higher efficiency fan

• 3. Impeller derating (by a smaller dia impeller)

• 4. Change of metallic / Glass reinforced Plastic (GRP) impeller by the more energy efficient hollow FRP
impeller with aerofoil design, in case of axial flow fans, where significant savings have been reported
• 5. Fan speed reduction by pulley dia modifications for derating

• 6. Option of two speed motors or variable speed drives for variable duty conditions

• 7. Option of energy efficient flat belts, or, cogged raw edged V belts, in place of conventional V belt
systems, for reducing transmission losses.
• 8. Adopting inlet guide vanes in place of discharge damper control

• 9. Minimizing system resistance and pressure drops by improvements in duct system

• Example 4.2

• A V-belt centrifugal fan is supplying air to a process plant. The performance test on the fan
gave the following parameters.
Solution
Refrigeration and air conditioning
• Refrigeration is the process of cooling a space, substance, or
system to lower and/or maintain its temperature below the ambient
one (while the removed heat is rejected at a higher temperature).
• Air-Conditioning is the control of temperature, humidity, purity, and
motion of air in an enclosed space, independent of outside
conditions.
Refrigeration Cycle & Its Components
Psychrometric
chart
Processes in
psychrometric
chart
 Air property finding from psychrometric chart
Example: Air properties of air at 32°C dry bulb temperature and RH of 60 %
• Specific humidity, ὡ = 18 gm-moisture/kg-air

• Enthalpy, h = 78 kJ/kg-air

• Wet-bulb temperature, Twb = 25.5°C

• Dew-point temperature, Tdp = 23°C

• The specific volume of the dry air, v = 0.89m3/kg

Problem
Outside air at 35°C and 60%
relative humidity is to be
conditioned by cooling and re-
heating so as to bring the air to
the "comfort zone" with the exit
temperature of 24°C and 53%
RH. Using the Psychrometric
Chart neatly plot the required
air conditioning process and
estimate
(a) the amount of moisture
removed, (b) the heat removed,
and (c) the amount of heat
added.
Solution
Using the Figure 5.3
a) The amount of moisture removed = 11.5g-H20 /kg-dry-air
b) The heat removed = (1)-(2), qcool= 48 kJ/kg-dry-air
The amount of heat added = (2)-(3), qheat = 10 kJ/kg-dry-air Air-

Human comfort
• One of the major applications of the Psychrometric Chart is in air conditioning,
and we find that most humans feel comfortable when the temperature is
between 22°C and 27°C, and the relative humidity ϕ between 40% and 60%.
This defines the "comfort zone"
Vapor absorption cycle

1 Ton of refrigeration = 3.516

kW = 3024 kcal/hr = 12000
BTU/hr
Refrigeration Effect,
Qe = m(h1-h2) kW
Compressor Work,
WC =m( h3-h2) kW

COP = QE/WC = (h1-h2)/(h3-

h2 )
= (241-120)/(288-241)
= 2.57
Effect of sub-cooling and superheating VCRS system
 Effect of sub-cooling and superheating VCRS system

• Subcooling is beneficial as it increases the refrigeration effect by reducing the

throttling loss at no additional specific work input. Also sub cooling ensures that only
liquid enters into the throttling device leading to its efficient operation.
Another practical advantage of sub cooling is that there is less vapor at the inlet to
the evaporator which leads to lower pressure drop in the evaporator.
• Useful superheating increases both the refrigeration effect as well as the work of
compression. Hence the COP (ratio of refrigeration effect and work of compression)
may or may not increase with superheat, depending mainly upon the nature of the
working fluid.
Even though useful superheating may or may not increase the COP of the system, a
minimum amount of superheat is desirable as it prevents the entry of liquid droplets
into the compressor.
Vapor absorption refrigeration system

• The Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System (VARS) is a type of refrigeration system that uses
heat energy instead of mechanical work to drive the cooling process. It is commonly used in
industrial, commercial, and remote applications where waste heat or solar energy is available.
Working Principle
• VARS operates based on the absorption and desorption of a refrigerant by a suitable
absorbent. The most common working pair used in absorption systems is:
o Ammonia-Water System (Ammonia as the refrigerant, Water as the absorbent)
o Lithium Bromide-Water System (Water as the refrigerant, Lithium Bromide as the absorbent)
 Vapor absorption
refrigeration system
• Main Components
o Generator – Uses heat energy to separate
the refrigerant from the absorbent.
o Condenser – Condenses the refrigerant
vapor into liquid.
o Expansion Valve – Reduces the pressure of
the liquid refrigerant.
o Evaporator – Absorbs heat from the
surroundings, producing the cooling effect.
o Absorber – The absorbent absorbs the
refrigerant vapor to complete the cycle.
o Pump (Optional) – In some systems, a small
pump is used to circulate the absorbent.
Vapor absorption refrigeration system
Advantages

• Utilizes low-grade heat sources such as waste heat, solar energy, or geothermal energy.

• Lower electricity consumption compared to vapor compression systems.

• Less maintenance due to fewer moving parts.

• Eco-friendly as it uses natural refrigerants with minimal environmental impact.

Disadvantages
• Lower efficiency compared to vapor compression systems.

• Bulky and expensive due to additional components like the absorber and generator.

• Slower response time in load variations.

Applications
• Industrial cooling (e.g., chemical and food processing plants)

• Air conditioning in buildings using waste heat

• Solar refrigeration systems

• Cold storage and preservation

Evaporative Cooling
Definition:
Evaporative cooling is a natural cooling process that occurs when
water absorbs heat and evaporates, reducing the temperature of the
surrounding air. It is commonly used in cooling towers, air washers,
and direct/indirect evaporative cooling systems.

Working Principle:
• Warm air passes over a wetted surface or through a water spray.
• Water absorbs heat from the air and evaporates.
• The air temperature decreases while humidity increases.
 Evaporative Cooling
Definition:
Evaporative cooling is a natural cooling
process that occurs when water absorbs
heat and evaporates, reducing the
temperature of the surrounding air. It is
commonly used in cooling towers, air
washers, and direct/indirect evaporative
cooling systems.

Working Principle:
• Warm air passes over a wetted surface or
through a water spray.
• Water absorbs heat from the air and
evaporates.
• The air temperature decreases while
humidity increases.
Compressor Types and Application

Types of Compressors in the HVAC Industry

Compressors are essential components in HVAC systems, responsible for compressing and
circulating refrigerant to enable cooling. The main types of compressors used in HVAC are:
1. Reciprocating Compressor
• Uses a piston-cylinder mechanism to compress refrigerant.

• Suitable for small to medium cooling applications.

• Can be single-stage or multi-stage for higher efficiency.

• Pros: High efficiency, cost-effective, reliable.

• Cons: Noisy, high maintenance due to moving parts.

Compressor Types and Application
2. Rotary Compressor
o Uses rotating elements (like vanes or rollers) to compress refrigerant.
o Commonly found in residential and light commercial HVAC systems.
o Pros: Compact, quieter than reciprocating, fewer vibrations.
o Cons: Lower efficiency in larger applications.

3. Scroll Compressor
o Consists of two interleaved spiral scrolls, with one stationary and the other
orbiting to compress the refrigerant.
o Used in residential and commercial air conditioning.
o Pros: High efficiency, quiet operation, fewer moving parts.
o Cons: Higher initial cost.
Compressor Types and Application
4. Screw Compressor

o Uses two helical rotors (screws) to compress the refrigerant.

o Ideal for large commercial and industrial cooling applications.
o Pros: Continuous operation, high efficiency, good for variable loads.
o Cons: Expensive, requires skilled maintenance.
5. Centrifugal Compressor

o Uses centrifugal force to accelerate and compress refrigerant vapor.

o Commonly used in large HVAC systems like chillers.
o Pros: High capacity, energy-efficient at large scales, minimal vibration.
o Cons: Expensive, requires precise maintenance.
Compressor Types and Application
Scroll vs. Rotary vs. Reciprocating – Which is Better?
• For small applications: Rotary or reciprocating.
• For medium applications: Scroll.
• For large applications: Screw or centrifugal.
Each compressor type has its specific advantages based on the
application size, efficiency needs, and cost considerations.
Performance Assessment of Refrigeration Plants
• The cooling effect produced is quantified as tons of refrigeration (TR).

• 1 TR of refrigeration = 3024 kcal/hr heat rejected. The refrigeration TR is assessed as

Where,
• Q is mass flow rate of coolant in kg/hr, measued by Ultra sonic flow meter or pump curve

• CP is coolant specific heat in kcal /kg°C

• Ti is inlet, temperature of coolant to evaporator (chiller) in °C

• To is outlet temperature of coolant from evaporator (chiller) in °C The above TR is also called
as chiller tonnage.
Performance Assessment of Refrigeration Plants

• The specific power consumption kW/TR is a useful indicator of the performance of

refrigeration system. By measuring refrigeration duty performed in TR and the kilowatt inputs,
kW/TR is used as a reference energy performance indicator.
• In a centralized chilled water system, apart from the compressor unit, power is also consumed
by the chilled water (secondary) coolant pump as well condenser water (for heat rejection to
cooling tower) pump and cooling tower fan in the cooling tower. Effectively, the overall energy
consumption would be towards:
o • Compressor kW
o • Chilled water pump kW
o • Condenser water pump kW
o • Cooling tower fan kW, for induced / forced draft towers
Performance Assessment of Refrigeration Plants
• COP normally used in the industry is given by

• The specific power consumption for certain TR output would therefore have to include:
o • Compressor kW/TR
o • Chilled water pump kW/TR
o • Condenser water pump kW/TR

o • Cooling tower fan kW/TR

• The overall kW/TR is the sum of the above.

 Performance Assessment of Refrigeration Plants
• In case of air conditioning units, the airflow at the Fan Coil Units (FCU) or the Air Handling
Units (AHU) can be measured with an anemometer. Dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are
measured at the inlet and outlet of AHU or the FCU and the refrigeration load in TR is
assessed as;

Where, Q is the air flow in m3/h

ρ is density of air kg/m3
hin is enthalpy of inlet air kcal/kg
hout is enthalpy of outlet air kcal/kg
• Use of psychrometric charts can help to calculate hin and hour from dry bulb, wet
bulb temperature values which are, in-turn measured, during trials, by a whirling
psychrometer.
• Power measurements at, compressor, pumps, AHU fans, cooling tower fans can be
accomplished by a portable load analyzer.
Performance
Assessment of
Refrigeration
Plants
 Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV)
KW/TR, COP or EER are useful reference but not an absolute measure, as it is based on full-load conditions that occur only a
small fraction of the time. To better evaluate efficiency, Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV) considers performance at 100%, 75%,
50%, and 25% loads. However, IPLV has limitations, as it assigns equal weight to all points, while most equipment operates
between 50% and 75% load. A detailed case-specific analysis, including yearly operational profiling, is essential for accurate
efficiency assessment.
Determination of Part-load Performance. ForWater chilling Packages covered by this standard, the IPLV or NPLV (Non-
standard part-load value)shall be calculated as follows:
• Determine the part-load energy efficiency at different load points (100%, 75%, 50%, and 25%),
• Use the following equation to calculate the IPLV or NPLV for units rated with COPR and EER.

• IPLV or NPLV= 0.01A+ 0.42B+ 0.45C+ 0.12D

Where:
• A=COPR or EER at 100% load

• B=COPR or EER at 75% load

• C=COPR or EER at 50% load

• D=COPR or EER at 25% load
Factors Affecting Performance &
Energy Efficiency of Refrigeration
Plants
1. Design of Process Heat Exchangers

• Optimizing compressor suction pressure and evaporator set points can significantly reduce
energy consumption. Process groups often use high safety margins, lowering suction pressure
unnecessarily. Raising the evaporator temperature by just 1°C can save around 3% of power.
Properly sizing heat exchangers and evaporators ensures minimal temperature differences,
reducing compressor work. Similarly, Condensers impact system efficiency—water-cooled
shell and tube condensers operate at lower discharge pressures, consuming up to 30% less
energy than air-cooled alternatives. Choosing generously sized condensers (≥0.65 m²/TR) with
efficient cooling methods is key to improving overall refrigeration efficiency.
• Higher evaporator pressure & Lower condenser pressure is key to efficient system as it
reduces compressor work
2. Maintenance of Heat Exchanger Surfaces
Effective maintenance is crucial for optimizing power consumption.
• Improving heat transfer requires proper oil-refrigerant separation, timely coil defrosting,

• Optimizing coolant velocity, though higher velocity increases pressure drops and energy use.

• Fouled condenser tubes (0.8 mm scale) can raise energy consumption by 35%, while

• Dirty evaporators also increase power use.

• Proper cooling tower management is essential, as lowering return water temperature by

0.55°C can cut compressor power by 3%.
3. Multi-Staging for Efficiency
• Efficient compressor operation requires a low compression ratio to reduce
discharge pressure and temperature.
• For low-temperature applications, multi-stage systems (compound or
cascade) are preferred. Two-stage compressors are ideal for -20°C to -58°C
with reciprocating or rotary types, and for -3°C with centrifugal compressors.
• In multi-stage systems, the first-stage compressor feeds the second-stage
after intercooling, reducing workload per compressor.
• For -46°C to -101°C, cascade systems using different refrigerants improve
efficiency by optimizing heat rejection, allowing low-temperature refrigerants
to operate effectively.
4. Matching Capacity to System Load
• During part-load operation, the evaporator temperature rises and condenser
temperature falls, improving COP. However, mechanical losses and deviation
from the design point reduce part-load efficiency. Since most refrigeration
systems operate under varying loads, proper capacity matching is essential.
This requires understanding compressor performance, ambient variations, and
cooling load fluctuations for optimal efficiency.
5. Capacity control & energy efficiency

• Compressor capacity is controlled in several ways. Reciprocating compressors use cylinder

unloading for stepped capacity modulation, while centrifugal and screw compressors use vane
control and sliding valves, respectively, for continuous modulation.
• For reciprocating compressors, return water temperature is a better control metric (as it
changes slowly giving compressor enough time to respond to load change) for fluctuating
loads, while leaving water temperature is preferable for stable loads.
• Centrifugal and screw chillers should use leaving water temperature.

• Speed control is the most efficient method but has limitations: it can affect reciprocating
compressor lubrication and centrifugal compressor surge below 50% capacity (where vane
control or hot gas bypass are used). Screw compressors are generally more efficient at part-
load than other types, and their performance can be optimized by adjusting the volume ratio.
They are also more tolerant of oil and liquid refrigerant.
6. Chilled Water Storage
• Chilledwater storage can be economical for loads with acceptable
temperature variations, allowing chillers to run less, especially during off-peak
hours for cost savings and better efficiency due to lower nighttime
temperatures.
• However, if tight temperature control is needed, storage might be less
economical due to the extra cooling required, though solutions like large heat
exchangers can help. Ice bank systems are often a cost-effective alternative.
 7. System Design Features
• • Design of cooling towers with FRP impellers and film fills, PVC drift eliminators, etc.

• • Use of softened water for condensers in place of raw water.

• • Use of economic insulation thickness on cold lines, heat exchangers, considering cost of heat gains
and adopting practices like infrared thermography for monitoring - applicable especially in large
chemical / fertilizer / process industry.
• • Adoption of roof coatings / cooling systems, false ceilings / as applicable, to minimize refrigeration
load.
• • Adoption of energy efficient heat recovery devices like air to air heat exchangers to pre-cool the fresh
air by indirect heat exchange; control of relative humidity through indirect heat exchange rather than
use of duct heaters after chilling.
• • Adopting of variable air volume systems; adopting of sun film application for heat reflection;
optimizing lighting loads in the air conditioned areas; optimizing number of air changes in the air
conditioned areas are few other examples.
Example
Heat Pump
Technology
Heat Pump Applications
o • Space heating
o • Heating of process streams
o • Water heating for washing, sanitation and cleaning

o • Steam production
o • Drying/dehumidification
o • Evaporation
o • Distillation

o • Concentration

• When heat pumps are used in drying, evaporation and distillation processes, heat is recycled
within the process. For heating of the space, process streams and steam production, the heat
pumps utilise (waste) heat sources between 20°C and 100°C.
 Ventilation Systems
• Ventilation can be simply described as
air circulation, the extraction of stale,
overheated and contaminated air and
supply and distribution of fresh air in
amounts necessary to provide healthy
and comfortable conditions for the
occupants of the room. The ventilation Calculation of ventilation rate: If the
effectiveness is dictated by number of compressor room size is
Air Changes per Hour (ACH). The 15 m (L) X 10 m (B) X 4 m (H)
number air changes depend on the then the ventilation rate is
=Lx BX HX AC =15 X10 X 4 X10 = 6000
purpose and function.
m3/hr
Adiabatic saturation or
evaporative cooling
Adiabatic saturation or evaporative cooling

Humidifying Air by adding Water

• In an air washer of textile humidification system airflow of 3000 m3/h at 25°C and 10% relative
humidity is humidified to 60% relative humidity by adding water through spray nozzles.
Calculate the amount of water required. The specific humidity of air at inlet and outlet are
0.002 kg/kg and 0.0062 kg/kg respectively.
Solution
The amount of water added can be calculated as:
• mw = 3000 X 1.184 X (0.0062 - 0.002) =14.9 kg/h
Energy Saving Opportunities
• Cold Insulation

• Insulate all cold lines / vessels using economic insulation thickness to minimize heat gains;
and choose appropriate (correct) insulation.
• b) Building Envelope

• Optimise air conditioning volumes by measures such as use of false ceiling and segregation of
critical areas for air conditioning by air curtains.
• c) Building Heat Loads Minimisation

• Minimise the air conditioning loads by measures such as roof cooling, roof painting, efficient
lighting, pre-cooling of fresh air by air- to-air heat exchangers, variable volume air system,
otpimal thermo-static setting of temperature of air conditioned spaces, sun film applications,
etc.
Energy Saving Opportunities

d) Process Heat Loads Minimisation

o Minimize process heat loads in terms of TR capacity as well as refrigeration level, i.e., temperature
required, by way of:
o Flow optimization
o Heat transfer area increase to accept higher temperature coolant
o Avoiding wastages like heat gains, loss of chilled water, idle flows.
o Frequent cleaning / de-scaling of all heat exchangers
Energy Saving Opportunities
e) At the Refrigeration A/C Plant Area
o • Ensure regular maintenance of all A/C plant components as per
manufacturer guidelines.
o • Ensure adequate quantity of chilled water and cooling water flows, avoid
bypass flows by closing valves of idle equipment.
o • Minimize part load operations by matching loads and plant capacity on line;
adopt variable speed drives for varying process load.
o• Make efforts to continuously optimize condenser and evaporator
parameters for minimizing specific energy consumption and maximizing
capacity.
o • Adopt VAR system where economics permit as a non-CFC solution.
Problem
Solution
Chapter 1

EL E CT R IC A L
SYSTE MS
Bangladesh Power Transmission System Overview

• Generation: 50 Hz AC electricity at 11kV, 11.5kV, or 15.75kV.

• Transmission: High voltage (400kV, 230kV, 132kV) for long distances, minimizing losses and
enabling smaller wires. HVDC used for very long distances (>1000km).
• Sub-transmission: 230kV and 132kV network.

• Distribution: Stepped down to 33kV, 11kV, and 0.4kV for various consumers. 11kV/6.6kV/3.3kV
to end users.
• Frequency: Allowable variation: 49.0-51.0 Hz.

• Key Concept: Higher voltage transmission/distribution reduces current, voltage drop, and
power loss (Ploss = I²R).
Cascade Energy Efficiency: Generation to User

• Generation: 40-45% efficiency (plant type/size/age dependent).

• Step-up to 400kV: 99% efficient (1% loss).

• EHV Transmission: 99% efficient (1% loss).

• HV Transmission: 97.5% efficient (2.5% loss).

• Sub-transmission: 96% efficient (4% loss).

• Step-down to 11/33kV: 99.5% efficient (0.5% loss).

• Key Concept: Efficiency losses accumulate across the transmission and distribution cascade.
 Loss at industry end
At the industrial end user premises again the plant network elements like transformers at receiving
sub-station, switch gear, lines and cables, load-break switches, capacitors cause losses which affect
the input received energy.
• Outdoor circuit breakers with typical full load losses of 0.002 – 0.015%
• Receiving transformers with typical operating efficiency of 99 % or above.
• Medium voltage switch gear 5.15kVwhere maximum full load losses can be between 0.005 - 0.02%
• Load break switches where maximum of full load losses can be between 0.003–0.025 %.
• Current limiting reactors can have a maximum full load losses ranging from 0.09% to 0.3 %.

• Medium voltage starters can have a maximum full load losses of 0.02% to 0.15%.

• Lines and cables can have a maximum loss ranging for 1% to 6% depending upon lengths, voltage
levels, power factor, condition of network in plant
• Motor control centers can have a full load losses range from 0.01% to 0.4 %.

• Low voltage switchgear can have a full load loss ranging from 0.13 % to 0.34 %.
 Electricity billing: The tariff structure
• Maximum demand Charges: These relate to maximum demand registered during month / billing period
and corresponding rate of utility.
• Energy Charges: These relate to energy (kilo watt hours) consumed during month /billing period and
corresponding rates, often levied in slabs of use rates. Some utilities now charge on the basis of
apparent energy (kVAh), which is a vector sum of kWh and KVARh.
• Power factor penalty or bonus rates, as levied by most utilities, are to contain reactive power drawn
from grid.
• Fuel cost adjustment charges as levied by some utilities are to adjust the increasing fuel expenses
over a base reference value.
• Electricity duty charges levied w.r.t units consumed.
• Meter rentals
• Lighting and fan power consumption is often at higher rates, levied sometimes on slab basis or on
actual metering basis.
The minimum outputs from the electromagnetic meters are:

• Maximum demand registered during the month, which is measured in preset time intervals (say of 30
minute duration) and this is reset at the end of every billing cycle.
• Active energy in KWH during billing cycle
• Average PF for billing period.
• Reactive energy in KVARH during billing cycle and
• Apparent energy in KVAH during billing cycle
As example, in an industry, if the drawl over a recording cycle of 30 minutes is:
Why Electrical Load Management?
• Macro Perspective: Growing electricity demand and diverse usage patterns
strain capacity. Load management optimizes existing resources, avoiding
costly/time-consuming capacity additions.
• Utility Perspective: Utilities incentivize load management via tariffs (time-of-
use, demand penalties, night concessions) for better infrastructure utilization.
• UserPerspective: Demand charges significantly impact bills. Load
management helps control maximum demand and reduce costs.
• Key Concept: Load management improves efficiency for both utilities and end-
users.
 Electrical Load Management Techniques
• Load Curve Analysis: Visualize demand patterns (hourly/daily) to understand peaks, valleys,
and trends. Calculate load factor to assess utilization.
• Load Rescheduling: Shift large loads/equipment operations to different shifts to minimize
simultaneous demand.
• Motor Staggering: Schedule large motor starts to avoid simultaneous peaks.

• Storage: Store products/materials/utilities (e.g., chilled water) during off-peak hours.

• Load Shedding: Automatically or manually shed non-essential loads when demand

approaches a limit. Advanced systems offer demand prediction, alarms, and controlled
shedding/restoration.
• Captive Generation: Utilize on-site generators (diesel/gas) during peak demand periods.

• Reactive Power Compensation: Install capacitor banks to optimize power factor and reduce
maximum demand.
Power Factor
Improving Power Factor
• The solution to improve the power factor is to add power factor correction capacitors to the
plant power distribution system. They act as reactive power generators, and provide the
needed reactive power to accomplish KW of work. This reduces the amount of reactive power
and thus total power generated by the Utilities (Distribution companies)
• A chemical industry had installed a 1500 KVA transformer. The initial demand of the plant was
1160 KVA with power factor of 0.70. The % loading of transformer was about 78%
(1160/1500=77.3%). To improve the power factor and thereby avoiding the penalty, the unit had
added about 410 KVAR in motor load end. This improved the power factor to 89%, and reduced
the required KVA to 913, which is the vector sum of KW and KVAR.
• After improvement the plant had avoided penalty and the 1500 KVA transformer now loaded
only to 60% of capacity. This will allow the addition of more loads in the future to be supplied
by the transformer.
Improving Power Factor
The advantages of improvement by capacitor addition

a) Reactive component of the network is reduced and also the total

current in the system from the source end.
b) I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction
in current.
c) Voltage level at the load end is increased.
d) KVA loading on the source generators as also on the transformers
and lines up to the capacitors reduces giving capacity relief. A high
power factor can help in utilizing the full capacity of the electrical
system.
Selection, Location and Sizing of Capacitor
• The figures given in table 1 are the multiplication factors which are to be multiplied with the
input power (kW) to give the KVAR of capacitance required to improve present power factor to
a new desired power factor.
Selection, Location and Sizing of Capacitor
Direct relation can also be used for capacitor sizing
KVAR Rating = KW [Tan φ1 – tanφ2]

where, KVAR rating is the size of the capacitor needed, KW is the average power drawn, tan φ1is the
trigonometric ratio for the present power factor, and tanφ2 is the trigonometric ratio for the desired PF.
φ1 = Existing (Cos-1 PF1) and φ2 = Improved (Cos-1PF2)

Location
• HT Side: Benefits utilities (lower cost/kVAR), but switchgear costs are high.

• LT Side (Load Centers/Motors): Reduces losses within the plant's distribution network,
directly benefiting users via lower demand costs. No extra switchgear needed, simplifies
control, and mitigates motor inrush effects. Preferred location for energy efficiency.
• Key Concept: Optimal placement at motors/load centers reduces losses for both the utility
and the user. Loss reduction is proportional to [1 - (PF1 / PF2 )²]
Transformers
•Transformers change voltage levels,
allowing efficient power transmission at high
voltage/low current to minimize losses.
•They use magnetically linked coils (primary
and secondary).
•The turns ratio (primary turns/secondary
turns) determines the voltage change.
•Secondary voltage equals primary voltage
multiplied by the turns ratio.
•Ampere-turns (current x turns) are equal in
both coils.
•Voltage regulation measures the voltage
increase from full load to no load.
Rating of the transformer

• Rating of the transformer is calculated based on the connected load and

applying the diversity factor on the connected load, applicable to the particular
industry and arrive at the KVA rating of the Transformer.
• Diversity factor is defined as the ratio of overall maximum demand of the plant
to the sum of individual maximum demand of various equipment.
• Diversity factor varies from industry to industry and depends on various
factors such as individual loads, load factor and future expansion needs of the
plant.
• Diversity factor will always be less than one.
Location of the transformer

• Location of the transformer is very important as far as distribution

loss is concerned.
• Transformer receives HT voltage from the grid and steps it down to
the required voltage.
• Transformers should be placed close to the load center,
considering other features like optimization needs for centralized
control, operational flexibility etc. This will bring down the
distribution loss in cables.
Transformer Losses and Efficiency
• Transformer efficiency ranges from 96% to 99% and depends on both design
and operating load. Transformer losses include:
• No-load loss (core loss): Constant loss due to hysteresis and eddy currents in
the core, independent of load.
• Load loss (copper loss): Varies with the square of the load current due to
winding resistance.
• Total loss at a given load is calculated as:
 No Load Loss
1. Hysteresis Loss:
• When alternating current (AC) flows through the transformer, the magnetic field in the core continuously
reverses direction.
• This repeated magnetization and demagnetization cause energy loss due to molecular friction within the
core material.
• The loss depends on the core material and the frequency of AC supply but remains constant as long as the
transformer is energized.
2. Eddy Current Loss:
• The alternating magnetic field induces circulating currents (eddy currents) within the steel core.

• These currents generate heat, leading to power loss.

• To minimize eddy current loss, transformer cores are made of laminated steel sheets insulated from each
other.
• Since both hysteresis and eddy current losses occur as long as the transformer is energized, they do not
depend on the load but only on the supply voltage and frequency.
Voltage fluctuation control
A control of voltage in a transformer is important due to frequent changes in supply voltage
level. Whenever the supply voltage is less than the optimal value, there is a chance of nuisance
tripping of voltage sensitive devices. The voltage regulation in transformers is done by altering
the voltage transformation ratio with the help of tapping. There are two methods of tap changing
facility available.
A tap changer adjusts a transformer's voltage ratio:
• Off-Circuit Tap Changer: Voltage adjustment requires disconnecting the transformer.

• On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC): Adjusts voltage without disconnection, reducing magnetization
losses and nuisance tripping.
• OLTC is recommended for main transformers (grid supply) and can operate in auto or manual
mode. It is typically used for transformers 250 kVA and above, with cost analysis required for
sizes below 1000 kVA.
Parallel operation of transformers
• PCC (Power Control Center) & MCC (Motor Control
Center) should be designed for parallel operation of two or more
transformers with additional switchgears and bus couplers.
• Transformers must be technically identical with the same
impedance to minimize circulating current.
• For fluctuating loads, parallel operation optimizes load sharing and
keeps transformers operating near maximum efficiency.
 Transformer loss calculation
• An engineering industry has installed three numbers of 1000KVA transformers for an electrical load of
1500KVA. The No-load loss and the full load loss of the transformers were collected from the
transformer certificates as 2.8KW and 11.88KW respectively. Estimate the total loss when 3
transformers in parallel operation and also 2 transformers parallel operation. The transformer losses
can also be obtained from manufacturers test certificate which are available in the plant.
Energy Loss Estimation & Distribution Loss Optimization:

• Losses include constant no-load losses and variable load losses, requiring expertise for accurate
assessment.
• Cable losses in industrial plants range from 2-4%, and can be reduced by lowering current load.

Optimization Methods:
• Relocating transformers near load centers.

• Re-routing/re-conducting high-loss feeders.

• Power factor improvement using capacitors.

• Optimum transformer loading.

• Using lower resistance conductors (AAAC instead of ACSR).

• Fixing weak links (loose connections, brittle conductors).

• Infrared thermography to detect and fix “hotspots” reducing resistance losses.

• Computer-based load flow analysis helps utilities optimize network efficiency and reduce losses.
Harmonics: Causes, Effects, and Mitigation
Harmonics are voltage or current waveforms that
occur at multiples of the fundamental frequency (e.g.,
50 Hz or 60 Hz). They are caused by non-linear loads
that draw current in pulses rather than smoothly.
Non-linear loads occur when the impedance is not
constant; then the current is not proportional to the
voltage. Harmonics occurs as spikes at intervals
which are multiples of the mains (supply) frequency
and these distort the pure sine wave form of the
supply voltage &current. Thus harmonics are multiples
of the fundamental frequency of an electrical power
system.
The magnitude and order of harmonics is governed by
the nature of the device being used and the impact is
expressed as Total Harmonic Distortion (THD).
Harmonics can be expressed in terms of current or
voltage.
• Causes of Harmonics:

• Harmonics are generated by non-linear electrical loads that draw current in pulses rather
than in a smooth waveform. Common sources include:
• Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)

• Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

• LED lighting and electronic ballasts

• Rectifiers and inverters

• Arc furnaces and welding equipment

• Computers and office equipment

Effects of Harmonics:
• Overheating – Increases heat in transformers, motors, and cables, reducing their
lifespan.
• Equipment Malfunction – Causes misoperation of protective devices and sensitive
equipment.
• Power Factor Reduction – Lowers efficiency, leading to higher energy costs.

• Resonance Issues – Amplifies voltage distortion, risking severe damage.

• Increased Neutral Current – Can cause overheating in neutral conductors, especially

in three-phase systems.
• Distorted Voltage Waveform – Leads to poor power quality, affecting system
performance.
Mitigation Methods:
• Harmonic filters (passive or active) to reduce distortion.

• K-rated transformers designed for non-linear loads.

• Proper power factor correction using detuned capacitors.

• Isolation transformers to limit harmonic propagation.

• Using multi-pulse rectifiers (e.g., 12-pulse or 18-pulse) to reduce harmonic generation.

Two very important points:

• 1. The customer is responsible for maintaining current distortion to within acceptable levels, while
the utility is responsible for limiting voltage distortion.
• 2. The limits are only applicable at the point of common coupling (PCC) between the utility and the
customer. The PCC, while not explicitly defined, is usually regarded as the point at which the utility
equipment ownership meets the customer’s or the metering point.
 Harmonic Filters and Mitigation Solutions
• Harmonic filters consist of capacitor banks and reactors in series, providing a low-impedance path to suppress
harmonics and reduce Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). These filters, when placed near harmonic-generating
equipment, improve power quality and energy efficiency. They are especially useful in industries with diesel
generators and co-generation units where no strict Electro Magnetic Compatibility (EMC) regulations exist.

• Types of Harmonic Mitigation Solutions:

• Passive Harmonic Filters (PHF):

• Uses inductors and capacitors to absorb and divert harmonics.
• Cost-effective but fixed in design, meaning they target specific harmonic frequencies.

• Advanced Active Filters (AAF):

• Uses electronics to dynamically detect and cancel harmonics in real time.
• More effective and flexible than passive filters but higher in cost.

• Active Front End (AFE) VFDs:

• A special Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) that actively reduces harmonic generation at the source.
• Ensures minimal voltage and current distortion, improving overall system efficiency.
Chapter 2:
Electrical
Motors
 Induction Motors
Induction motors are widely used in industrial
applications due to their simplicity and
reliability. They operate based on transformer
action, inducing currents in the rotor without a
separate field circuit. There are two types of
rotors: cage rotors, which are simple and
maintenance-free, and wound rotors, which are
more complex and rarely used. When a 3-phase
supply is applied to the stator, it creates a
rotating magnetic field that induces an EMF in
the rotor. The rotor then starts rotating in the
same direction to reduce relative motion, but it
never reaches synchronous speed.
Synchronous motors
• Synchronous motors have a rotor
supplied with DC power, which
locks onto the stator's rotating
magnetic field, making the rotor
rotate at synchronous speed with no
slip. Unlike induction motors, their
speed is strictly governed by the
supply frequency and the number of
poles. The rotor follows the stator's
magnetic field without lagging, and
slip energy is provided by DC
excitation.
Synchronous vs. Induction Motor

• Synchronous Motor: Runs at a constant speed (synchronous speed) with no

slip. The rotor is powered by an external DC source and locks onto the rotating
magnetic field of the stator. Used in applications requiring precise speed
control.
• Induction Motor: Operates slightly below synchronous speed due to slip. The
rotor current is induced by the stator’s magnetic field without external
excitation. Common in industrial applications due to simplicity and low
maintenance.
 Direct-Current
motors
• Direct-Current motors, as the name
implies, use direct, i.e.
unidirectional, current. Used in
special applications, they only
represent small percentage of
motors used in industry, e.g. where
high torque starting or where
smooth acceleration over a broad
speed range is required. Before the
widespread use of power electronic
rectifier-inverters, dc motors were
unexcelled in speed control
applications.
Motor Speed
• The speed of a motor is the number of revolutions in a given time frame, typically revolutions
per minute (RPM). The speed of an AC motor depends on the frequency of the input power and
the number of poles for which the motor is wound. The synchronous speed in RPM is given by
the following equation, where the frequency is in hertz or cycles per second:

• The actual speed with which the motor operates, will be less than the synchronous speed. The
difference between synchronous and full load speed is called slip and is measured in percent.
It is calculated using this equation:
 Volts/Hz Relationship in motor speed control
• The speed of an induction motor can be controlled
by changing the supply frequency, but voltage must
also be adjusted to maintain constant motor flux.
Since impedance depends on frequency (Z=2πfL),
lowering the frequency without adjusting voltage
can cause excessive current. To ensure efficient
operation and constant torque, the voltage-to-
frequency (V/f) ratio is kept constant across most
speeds. However, at very low speeds, additional
voltage (voltage boost) is required to compensate
for winding resistance. A Variable Frequency Drive
(VFD) manages this relationship, allowing smooth
speed control.
Relation between PF & motor load
The power factor of the motor is given as:
• Power Factor = Cos φ = kW/kVA

As the load on the motor comes down, the magnitude of the active
current reduces. However, there is no corresponding reduction in the
magnetizing current, with the result that the motor power factor
reduces, with a reduction in applied load. Induction motors,
especially those operating below their rated capacity, are the main
reason for low power factor in electric systems.
 Motor Efficiency Parameters
The efficiency (η) and power factor (PF) of an AC induction motor are key to its
electricity consumption. Efficiency (η) is the ratio of mechanical output to electrical
input, while power factor (PF) is the ratio of real power (kW) to apparent power (kVA).
Since induction motors have PF < 1, they draw more current, leading to higher
resistance losses in wiring.
Factors Affecting Efficiency:
• Motor Type: Squirrel cage motors are more efficient than slip-ring motors.

• Speed: Higher-speed motors are generally more efficient.

• Cooling System: TEFC (Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled) motors are more efficient than
SPDP (Screen Protected Drip-Proof) motors.
• Motor Size: Larger motors tend to have higher efficiency.
Motor losses

• Fixed losses (independent of load): Magnetic core losses (iron losses) and
friction/windage losses.
• Variable losses (dependent on load): Resistance losses in stator & rotor, and
stray losses.
• At part-load conditions (50-100% load), efficiency drops slightly, but PF falls
more noticeably. At very low loads, both η and PF decline significantly, making
operation inefficient.
 Motors Selection
The key factor is torque requirements, including breakdown torque, locked rotor torque, and acceleration
torque. Load characteristics (constant vs. variable torque/speed) also influence the choice.
• Breakdown Torque (BDT):
• Highest torque a motor can produce before stalling.
• Considered a critical parameter for motor selection, as it needs to be greater than the maximum load torque
the motor will encounter.
• Occurs at a specific speed on the torque-speed curve.

• Locked Rotor Torque (LRT):

• Torque produced when the motor is initially started with the rotor completely stationary.
• Usually lower than breakdown torque.
• Important for applications where high starting torque is required, like heavy loads.

• Acceleration Torque:
• Average torque developed by the motor while accelerating from standstill to full speed.
• Varies depending on the load and motor characteristics.
Operating
condition

As it
can't
reach
sync.
speed
Other important factors:

• Duty Cycle & Cooling: TEFC motors may have insufficient cooling at low speeds.

• Ambient Conditions: Special motors are needed for corrosive, dusty, or high-temperature
environments.
• Switching Frequency: Frequent starts/stops impact selection.

• Electrical System Impact: Large load variations can cause voltage drops affecting other
equipment.
• Reliability vs. Oversizing: Oversizing reduces efficiency; a better understanding of process
needs prevents this.
• Inventory & Availability: Standardized motors simplify maintenance and reduce downtime.

• Cost vs. Efficiency: Energy-efficient motors may have higher upfront costs but save money in
the long run.
 Energy efficient motors
1. Stator & Rotor I2R Losses (55-60%)
• Caused by resistance in stator and rotor conductors.
• Reducing resistance (using copper conductors) and operating closer to synchronous speed lowers these
losses.
2. Core Losses (20-25%)
• Due to hysteresis and eddy currents in magnetic steel.
• Reduced by using low-loss silicon steel and thinner laminations.

3. Friction & Windage Losses (8-12%)

• Caused by bearing friction and air circulation.
• Reduced by smaller fans and optimized design.

4. Stray Load Losses (4-5%)

• Caused by leakage flux in laminations.

• Reduced by optimized slot design and air gap.

Energy-Efficient Motors

• Have 3-7% higher efficiency due to reduced losses.

• Higher initial cost but quick payback in continuous duty applications.

• Not ideal for intermittent loads (hoists, cranes, punch presses, etc.).

• Designed for continuous duty cycles with standard mounting dimensions for easy replacement.

• Key Takeaways

• Reducing losses improves motor efficiency.

• Energy-efficient motors save costs in long-term operation.

• Proper sizing and consideration of voltage/frequency variations are essential for maximizing
benefits.
 Field Tests for Determining Efficiency

a) Calculate iron plus friction and windage losses

b) Calculate stator resistance at 120 DegC
c) Calculate stator copper losses at operating temperature of resistance at 120 DegC
d) Calculate full load slip (s) and rotor input assuming rotor losses are slip times rotor input.
e) Determine the motor input assuming that stray losses are 0.5% of the motor rated power
f) Calculate motor full load efficiency and full load power factor
Comments
• a) The measurement of stray load losses is very difficult and not practical even on test beds.

• b) The actual value of stray loss of motors up to 200 HP is likely to be 1 % to 3 % compared to

0.5 % assumed by standards.
• c) The value of full load slip taken from the nameplate data is not accurate. Actual
measurement under full load conditions will give better results.
• d) The friction and windage losses really are part of the shaft output; however, in the above
calculation, it is not added to the rated shaft output, before calculating the rotor input power.
The error however is minor.
• e) When a motor is rewound, there is a fair chance that the resistance per phase would
increase due to winding material quality and the losses would be higher. It would be
interesting to assess the effect of a nominal 10 % increase in resistance per phase.
Factors Affecting Energy Efficiency &
Minimizing Motor Losses in operation
 Power Supply Quality

Motor performance depends on input

power quality, including voltage,
frequency, and their variations. In
Bangladesh, BSTI standards ensure
motors can operate within specified
voltage and frequency fluctuations.
Poor power quality can negatively
impact performance.
Power Supply Quality
Effect of Voltage Variation
• Induction motors are normally designed to give satisfactory performance on a line voltage of
up to 10% above or 10% below the rated value per NEMA standards.
• Voltage unbalance, the condition where the voltages in the three phases are not equal, can be
still more detrimental to motor performance and motor life.
• Percent unbalance in voltage is defined as 100 (Vmax – Vavg) / Vavg, Where Vmax and Vavg
are the largest and the average of the three phase voltages, respectively
• For example, if the line voltages are Vab = 410, Vbc = 417, and Vca = 408

% Voltage unbalance = (417 – 411.7/ 411.667) x 100 = 1.29 % (should be within 3%)
Power Supply Quality
Common Causes of Voltage Unbalance
• Unbalanced incoming utility supply
• Unequal transformer tap settings
• Large single phase distribution transformer on the system
• Open phase on the primary of a 3 phase transformer on the distribution system
• Faults or grounds in the power transformer
• Open delta connected transformer banks
A blown fuse on a 3 phase bank of power factor improvement capacitors
• Unequal impedance in conductors of power supply wiring
• Unbalanced distribution of single phase loads such as lighting
• Heavy reactive single phase loads such as welders
Power Supply Quality
• Voltage unbalance causes extremely high current imbalance. The magnitude of current
imbalance may be 6 to 10 times as large as the voltage imbalance. A motor will run hotter
when operating on a power supply with voltage unbalance. The additional temperature rise is
estimated with the following equation
• Additional temperature rise = 2 x (% Voltage unbalance)2

• For example, if the voltage unbalance is 2% for a motor operating at 100oC, the additional
temperature rise will be 8oC. The winding insulation life is reduced by one half for each 10 0C
increase in operating temperature.
• The options that an Energy Manager can exercise to minimize voltage unbalance include:
o • Balancing any single phase loads equally among all the three phases
o • Segregating any single phase loads which disturb the load balance and feed them from a separate
line / transformer.
Motor Loading optimization
Step 1: Measuring Load
Understanding motor load is key to improving efficiency, but measuring it accurately is challenging. It requires
assessing power, current, voltage, frequency, speed, and stator resistance under both load and no-load
conditions. No-load measurements help estimate fixed losses, enabling efficiency calculations. Proper
instrumentation is essential.
Step 2: Reducing or preventing underloading
Under-loading is a major cause of motor inefficiency, leading to lower efficiency, poor power factor, and
unnecessary costs. It occurs due to oversized motor selection, under-utilization, or voltage issues. Evaluating
motor load can optimize selection, but replacing motors operating at 60–70% capacity may not always be
beneficial. For motors running below 50% load, switching to star mode can improve efficiency by reducing
voltage. Delta-Star starters can also help adjust motor operation based on load requirements.
Step 3: Sizing to Variable Load (avoiding sizing to rated load that occurs for short time span)
Industrial motors often face variable loads, and selecting a motor based on peak load can be inefficient and costly.
A better approach is to use the load duration curve to choose a motor with a slightly lower rating that can handle
short overloads while maintaining safe temperature limits. However, this method is unsuitable for applications
with frequent starts, stops, or high inertia loads, as it may underestimate heating effects.
Power Factor Correction
• Induction motors have low power
factors, reducing efficiency and
increasing costs. Power factor
correction using parallel capacitors
lowers kVA demand, reduces
losses, improves voltage regulation,
and enhances system efficiency. The
required capacitor size is based on
the motor’s no-load reactive power,
typically not exceeding 90% of it to
avoid over-voltage risks. Maximum
efficiency is achieved by placing
capacitors at motor terminals.
Maintenance

• Poor motor maintenance increases losses and reduces

reliability. Key practices include proper lubrication,
ventilation, and regular inspections for wear, dirt, and
misalignment. Monitoring load conditions helps detect
issues, while correct wiring and tight connections ensure
efficiency. Maintaining these factors extends motor life
and prevents failures.
Age

• Motor cores retain their properties over time, but

poor maintenance and harsh ambient conditions can
reduce efficiency. Issues like inadequate lubrication,
dust, high temperatures, and humidity can damage
insulation and cause misalignment. Proper care
ensures sustained motor performance.
Rewinding Effects on Energy Efficiency

• Rewinding motors is common in industry, but it often

reduces efficiency due to changes in winding design,
insulation damage, and altered air gaps. Proper rewinding
can maintain or even improve efficiency by optimizing
winding design and using thicker wires. Preserving the
original design is recommended unless load changes
require modifications. Tracking no-load losses before and
after rewinding helps assess efficiency impacts.
Speed Control of AC Induction Motors
• DC motors have traditionally been used for variable speed applications
but are limited by high cost, maintenance needs, and operational risks.
AC motors, particularly induction motors, are now preferred due to their
durability, lower cost, and ease of speed control through frequency
variation. Selecting a speed control system requires analyzing factors
like cost, load characteristics, and operational needs. Loads can be
constant torque, variable torque, or constant power, with the highest
energy savings potential in variable torque applications like pumps and
fans. Proper instrumentation is essential for accurately assessing load
variations and optimizing efficiency.
Speed Control of AC Induction Motors
Motor speed control methods include:
• Mechanical Systems – Gears, pulleys, and chains provide limited speed variation and are suitable
for applications needing a few fixed speeds.
• Multi-Speed Motors – Designed to operate at two or four fixed speeds, they are economical for
applications requiring limited speed control.
• Eddy-Current Drives – Use an eddy-current clutch to vary speed by adjusting DC excitation but
have low efficiency at reduced speeds.
• Fluid-Coupling Drives – Transmit power through fluids, commonly using light mineral oil, in
hydrostatic, hydrodynamic, or hydro-viscous systems.
• Variable frequency drive (VFD) - VFDs control motor speed by adjusting the frequency of the power
supplied to the motor. They provide precise and continuous speed control, making them ideal for
applications requiring variable speeds. VFDs improve energy efficiency, especially in variable
torque applications
Speed Control of AC Induction Motors

Concept of Variable Frequency Drive

• The speed of an induction motor is proportional to the frequency of the AC
voltage applied to it, as well as the number of poles in the motor stator. This is
expressed by the equation:
• RPM = (f x 120) / p

• Where f is the frequency in Hz, and p is the number of poles in any multiple of
2.
• Therefore, if the frequency applied to the motor is changed, the motor speed
changes in direct proportion to the frequency change. The control of frequency
applied to the motor is the job given to the VSD.
 Speed Control of AC Induction Motors
Principles of VFDs (Variable Frequency Drives)
VFDs control motor speed by adjusting the frequency and voltage of the power supplied. The system
consists of power electronics (IGBT, MOSFET), a central controller, and optional sensors. The VFD converts
AC input to DC, then synthesizes DC into three-phase AC with variable voltage and frequency.
• Base Speed Control: Speed is proportional to the supply frequency. The motor's torque remains constant
up to base speed by keeping the voltage and frequency in a constant ratio.
• Beyond Base Speed: Increased frequency beyond the base speed weakens the field, reducing torque.

• Constant V/f Control: Ensures smooth operation, reduces starting current, and provides over-current
protection, especially in high-inertia loads.
• Energy Efficiency: The VFD allows speed adjustment based on load requirements, improving energy
efficiency, especially in applications where power is proportional to the cube of speed.
• Multiple Motors: A single VFD can control multiple motors and is adaptable to various operating
conditions.
 Speed Control of AC Induction Motors
Precautions for Using Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)

• Power Supply Stability: Ensure voltage is within ±10% to avoid tripping.

• Low-Speed Operation: Install thermal sensors for motors running at low speeds to prevent overheating.

• Wiring: Keep speed control wiring (4-20 mA or 0-5 VDC) separate from other wiring to avoid interference.

• Installation: Improper installation accounts for 50% of VFD failures. Use the VFD start-up sheet for initial checks.

• Environmental Conditions: Avoid corrosive environments, humidity >95%, temperatures >40°C, or conditions with
condensation.

• Load Start-Up: Starting VFD with a spinning load can cause high current and trips unless specialized VFDs are
used.

• Power Switching: Most VFDs cannot switch from grid to emergency power while running; include this capability if
needed.
• Disconnects: Interlock the run-permissive circuit to electrical disconnects.

• Rated Load: If the motor runs at rated load continuously, VFDs may increase power use due to internal losses
 Soft Starters
Soft Starter / Energy Saver for A.C. Induction Motors
• Function: Soft starters reduce the starting current to 1.5-2 times the full load
current, compared to 5-7 times with conventional starters. This gradual
acceleration eliminates motor starting shocks.
• Working: Solid-state devices control current and voltage to smoothly ramp up motor
voltage, allowing for a controlled start.
• Advantages:
• Reduced power consumption, lowering energy bills.
• Continuous power factor improvement.
• Reduced motor starting current and peak demand.
• Lower motor temperature, extending motor life and reducing maintenance.
• Enables more equipment operation when using a generator by lowering motor start and run
currents.
 From Module 4
• Determining Motor Loading:
o Input Power Measurements: One of the most used method
o Line Current Measurements: The line current load estimation method is used when input
power cannot be measured and only amperage measurements are possible. In the low load
region, current measurements are not a useful indicator of load. However, this method may
be used only as a preliminary method just for the purpose of identification of oversized
motors.

o Slip Method: In the absence of a power meter, the slip method can be used which requires
a tachometer. This method also does not give the exact loading on the motors.
 Input Power Measurements

Example" The name plate details of a motor are given as power = 15 kW, efficiency, η = 0.9. Using a power meter the
actual three phase power drawn is found to be 8 kW. Find out the loading of the motor.

Input power at full-rated power in kW, Pir = 15 /0.9 = 16.7 kW Percentage loading = 8/16.7 = 48%
Slip method
Slip method
• Example 4.5
• a) In a 75 kW four pole induction motor operating at 49.8 Hz and
rated for 415 V and 1440 RPM, the actual measured speed is 1470
RPM. Find out the percentage loading of the motor if the voltage
applied is 428 V.
• b) A 6 pole, 415 volt, 3 ø, 50 Hz induction motor delivers 22 kW
power at rotor shaft at a speed of 950 rpm with PF of 0.88. The total
loss in the stator including core, copper and other losses is 2 kW.
Calculate the following. i) Slip ii) Rotor Copper Loss iii) Total Input
to motor iv) Line current at 415 V and motor pi of 0.88 v) Motor
operating efficiency