Musical intervals
Marco Costa
Department of Psychology
University of Bologna, Italy
Musical intervals
▪ A musical interval is the distance between two notes. Almost all music is
created by using notes at different distances and thus different sizes of
intervals. The notes in an interval may be played simultaneously
(harmonic intervals), which is the case in chords, or played successively,
which is the case in melodies (melodic intervals, either ascending or
descending).
▪ The intervals are named after the number of degrees between the
notes. It is the number of degrees alone, and not the specific notes that
determine the numbers.
Consonant and dissonant intervals
▪ Intervals can be consonant or dissonant. If the notes sound pleasant
and relaxed, the interval is a consonant interval. If the notes sound
unpleasant and tense, the interval is a dissonant interval:
▪ Dissonant intervals are not necessarily undesirable. Dissonant intervals
are used in many contexts to build tension and momentum in the
music.
▪ Perfect consonance: unison, perfect fourth, perfect fifth, octave
▪ Imperfect consonance: minor third, major third, minor sixth, major sixth.
▪ Dissonant intervals: minor second, major second, tritone, minor seventh,
and major seventh.
Interval inversion
▪ An inverted interval is an interval turned upside down by moving the
lower note up an octave, or the upper note down an octave. The
inversion of the original interval results in a new interval:
▪ In the example above, the note C has moved up an octave. The
original interval is a sixth (6 degrees) and its inversion is a third (3
degrees). The number of degrees in an interval plus its inversion always
equals 9 degrees.
How emotions are measured?
The circumplex model of emotions (Russell, 1980, 2003)
Psychological connotations of harmonic musical
intervals (Costa, Ricci Bitti, Bonfiglioli, 2000)
Valence (happy – sad) by intervals and register
Participants had to rate musical intervals in isolation. Low mean score →
happy, high mean score → sad.
Musical interval distribution
Costa, Fine, Ricci Bitti (2004)
Statical distribution of the musical intervals analyzing a large corpus of
music excerpts.
Valence (happiness versus sadness)
Attractiveness
Activity
Potency
Affective perception of musical intervals in a systematic
musicological perspective
Based on Stefani, G, Marconi, L., Ferrari, F. (1990) Gli intervalli musicali.
Bompiani and Cooke, D. (1959) The language of music. Oxford University
Press
The authors analyzed melodies composed mainly with a unique musical
intervals. The emotional expressivity of the melody was investigated. If the
melodic interval was changed then the emotional expression was
completely changed.
Furthermore, the authors have linked the use of specific intervals with the
meaning of the lyric.
Major Second
The major second is
composed by two semitones.
When played harmonically it
is very dissonant interval due
to the beats.
When played melodically it
conveys a sense of little-by-
little motion, a sense of
ascending or descending
with little steps, continuous
motion.
Minor second
It is the shortest musical
interval. When played
harmonically it is very dissonant
due to the beats. It conveys a
sense of suffering, lament,
torment.
Third
▪ The third is oftern
found when
expressing simplicity,
a sense of babyish,
infantile, easy,
primordial chant.
Thirds are often
used in nursey
rhymes, chants.
Major third
Major third has estabilished itself naturally as an expression of pleasure or
happiness.
Minor third
It has a «depressed» sound, expressing sadness.
Contrast between major and minor third
Sudden switch from pleasurable (major) to painful (minor) feelings or vice
versa.
Major-minor mode
The third establishes the difference between major and minor triads and
major and minor scales.
Positive emotions (joy, confidence, love, serenity, triumph) are expressed
mainly by major music and negative emotions (sorrow, fear, hate,
disquiet, despair) is conveyed mainly by minor music.
Sixth
▪ Sixth is a rather ample
intervals often used to
express an emotional burst of
tenderness, love, as in the
Love story song. It can be
major or minor. The major
sixth conveys a sense of joy,
opennes, whereas the minor
sixth conveys a sense of pain.
Augmented fourth
It is composed by three
tones. It conveys a sense of
anguish, despair, terror.
During middle age it was
called «diabolus in musica»
and was banned from
musical compositions.
Fifth
▪ After the octave it is the most
consonant interval. Expresses
a sense of stability, solemnity,
martiality. It is mainly used in
cadence.
Seventh
▪ It is a dissonant
interval that conveys
a sense of motion,
instability, tendency
to resolve to the
octave.
▪ Can be major and
minor. The minor
seventh is expressive
of painful feelings.
Octave
▪ It is a ample interval that
translates in expressions
of potency, power,
strength, energy.
Basic expressive function of musical intervals according
to Cooke (1958)
▪ Tonic: emotionally neutral; context of finality
▪ Minor second: semitonal tension down to the tonic, in a minor context:
spiritless anguish, context of finality
▪ Major second: as a passing note, emotionally neutral. As a whole-tone
tension down to the tonic, in a major context, pleasurable longing,
context of finality;
▪ Minor third: concord, but a «depression» of natural third: stoic
acceptance, tragedy.
▪ Major third: concord, natural third: joy.
▪ Perfect fourth: As a passing note, emotionally neutral. As a semitonal
tension down to the major third, pathos
▪ Augmented fourth: As modulating note to the dominant key, active
aspiration. As «augmented fourth», devilish and inimical forces.
Basic expressive function of musical intervals according
to Cooke (1958)
▪ Dominant: Emotionally neutral; context of flux, intermediacy.
▪ Minor sixth: semitonal tension down to the dominant, in a minor context:
active anguish in a context of flux.
▪ Major sixth: as a passing note, emotionally neutral. As a whole-tone
tension down to the dominant, in a major context, pleasurable longing
in a context of flux
▪ Minor seventh: semitonal tension down to the major sixth, or whole-tone
tension down to minor sixth, both unsatisfactory, resolving again down
to the dominant: «lost» note, mournfulness
▪ Major seventh: as a passing note, emotionally neutral. As a semitonal
tension up to the tonic, violent longing, aspiration in a context of
finality.
Ascending 1 (2) 3 (4) 5 (major)
To raise in pitch is to
express an outgoing
emotion. To deploy
the major triad as a
melodic ascent 1-3-5 is
to express an outgoing
active assertive
emotion of joy.
Ascending 5 1 (2) 3 (major)
The leap
from the
dominant up
to the tonic,
and thence
to the major
third, with or
without the
intervening
second, is
equally
expressive of
an outgoing
emotion of
joy.
Ascending 1 (2) 3 (4) 5 (minor)
Substituting the
minor for the
major third in the
1-3-5
progression, we
shall expect to
find the resulting
phrase
expressive of an
outgoing feeling
of pain – an
assertion of
sorrow, a
complaint, a
protest againts
misfortune.
Ascending 5 1 (2) 3 (minor)
If the major version of
5-1-3 stresses joy pure
and simple, by aiming
at the major third, the
minor version expresses
pure tragedy, by
aiming at the minor
third.
Descending 5 (4) 3 (2) 1 (major)
The descend from the the
dominant to the point of
repose, the tonic, through the
major third, will naturally convey
a sense of experiencing joy
passively, relief, consolation,
reassurance, fulfilment,
together with a feeling of
«having come home».
Descending 5 (4) 3 (2) 1 (minor)
Substituting the major
with the minor third in the
descending 5-3-1
progression, we have a
phrase which has been
much used to express an
incoming painful
emotion, in a context of
finality, acceptance of
grief, discouragement
and depression, passive
suffering, and the despair
connected with death.
Arched 5 3 (2) 1
To rise from the
lower dominant
over the tonic to
the minor third,
and fall back to
the tonic with or
without the
intervening
second, conveys
the feeling of a
passionate
outburst of
painful emotion,
restless sorrow.
1 (2) 3 (2) 1 (minor)
To base a theme on the tonic,
only moving out as far as the
minor third, and returning
immediately, is to «look on the
darker side of things» in a
context of immobility, neither
rising up to protest, nor falling
back to accept. Composers
have frequently used this
progression to express
brooding, an obsession with
gloomy feelings, a trapped
fear, or a sense of inescapable
doom, especially when it is
repeated over and over.
(5) 6 5 (major)
Assertion of joy,
joyous vibration,
sense of
amusement, love
sentiment.
(5) 6 5 (minor)
The chief and almost only
expressive function of the
minor sixth is to act as an
appoggiatura on to the
dominant, giving the
effect of a burst of
anguish.
1 2 3 2 (minor)
Sense of
brooding grief
swelling out briefly
into a burst of
anguish
1 (2) (3) (4) 5 6 5 (major)
The ascending major 1-3-
5 progression, with the 5-
6-5 phrase dovetailed on,
is another of the most
widely used terms of
musical language; it is
almost always employed
to express innocence,
purity, delicate love.
Expression of absolute
happiness.
1 (2) (3) (4) 5 6 5 (minor)
The minor version clearly
expresses a powerful
assertion of fundamental
unhappiness being the
«protest» of 1-3-5 being
extended into the
«anguish» of 5-6-5.
8 7 6 5 (major)
To fall from the
tonic to the
dominant, taking
in the optistic
major seventh and
sixth, is to express
an incoming
emotion of joy, an
acceptance or
welcoming of
comfort,
consolation, or
fulfilment.
8 7 6 5 (minor)
To fall from the tonic to
the dominant, taking in
the «mournful» minor
seventh and «anguished»
minor sixth, is clearly to
express an incoming
painful emotion, an
acceptance of, or
yielding to grief; passive
suffering; and the despair
connected with death.
The descending chromatic scale
The descending chromatic scale, is essentially the minor 8-7-6-5
with the intervening semitones filled in, plus or minus the minor 5-4-
3-2-1, treated likewise. The effect of filling in the gaps is to make
the «despairing» descent wearier, and to increase the element of
pain by every possible chromatic tension.