Vectors and Dynamics

MTH 112

2nd February, 2021

Contents

I Introduction 4
1 Scalar Quantity 4

2 Vector Quantity 4

II Geometric Representation of Vectors 5

III Vector Algebra 6

3 Vector Addition 6
3.1 Sum or Resultant of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Scalar Multiplication 9

5 Laws of Vector Algebra 9

6 Rectangular Unit Vectors 10

IV Components and Direction Cosine of a Vector 11

7 Components of a Vector 11
7.1 Magnitude (Modulus) of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

8 Position Vector 13

9 Direction Cosine of a Vector 13

By L. Yusuf & J. Aminu

1
V Linear Dependence and Linear Independence of Vec-
tors 15
10 Linear Combination of Vectors 15
10.1 Linearly Dependent Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
10.2 Linearly Independent Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

VI Product of Two Vectors 18

11 Scalar or Dot Product 18
11.1 Geometrical Interpretation of Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . 20
11.1.1 Projection of One Vector on Another . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
11.2 Application of Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

12 Vector or Cross Product 24

VII Di¤erentiation and Integration of Vectors 29

13 Di¤erentiation of Vector of Function 29
13.1 Vector Function of a Scalar Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
13.1.1 Rules for Di¤erentiation of Vector Function . . . . . . . . 30

14 Integrationtion of Vector Function 33

2
Preface
This lecture note is designed to cover the following topics;

1. Vectors: Geometric representation of vectors in 1 3 dimensions, com-

ponents,direction cosines. Addition, scalar multiplication, linear indepen-
dence and dependence of vectors. Scalar and vector products of vectors.
Di¤erentiation and Integration of vectors with respect to a scalar variable.
2. Dynamics: Kinematics of a particle. Component of velocity and acceler-
ation of a particle moving in a plane. Force, Momentum, Laws of Motion
under gravity, projectiles, resisted vertical motion, elastic strings, simple
pendulum, and impulse. Impact of two Smooth spheres, and of a sphere
and smooth sphere.

3
 V ECT ORS

Part I
Introduction
In sciences, physical quantities are categorized into two categories; namely:

1. Scalar quantities;
2. Vector quantities.

1 Scalar Quantity
De…nition: By scalar quantity, we mean any physical quantity that posses mag-
nitude only. Examples of such quantity include time, mass, temperature, vol-
ume, area, etc.

2 Vector Quantity
De…nition: By vector quantity, we mean any physical quantity that posses
magnitude and direction in which it operates. Examples of such quantity include
force, displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, etc.

4
Part II
Geometric Representation of
Vectors
Vectors are represented geometrically by the use of a directed line segment say
!
AB, usually refers to as AB. i.e.

Figure 2.1: Directed Line Segment

So that:
(a) The magnitude of the vector is represented by the length of the line ac-
cording to some state vector scale.
(b) The direction of the vector is represented by the sense of direction of the
line segment; usually denoted with an arrow head on the line.
Note that:
1. Vectors are sometimes represented with boldfaced letters or letters with
an arrow over them.
2. The start and end points of any vector are called the initial and terminal
points of that vector respectively. Thus, with reference to …gure 2.1, the
!
point A is the initial while B is the terminal point of the vector AB.
! !
3. Two vectors A and B are equal if they have the same magnitude and
direction regardless of their initial point. Thus, A = B in Figure 2.2
below.

Figure 2.2: Equal Vectors

4. If a vector whose direction is opposite to that of any given vector A but

having the same magnitude as A, that vector is called the negative vector
of A and it is denoted as A . i.e.

Figure 2.3: Negative Vector

5
Part III
Vector Algebra
There are two basic operations with vectors:

1. Vector Addition

2. Scalar Multiplication

3 Vector Addition
3.1 Sum or Resultant of Vectors
! !
De…nition: Let AB and BC be free vectors, the sum or resultant of these A free vector
! ! !
two vectors is a single vector AC which is formed by adding BC to AB ( i.e. is a vector
! ! ! which is not
AC = AB + BC).
restricted in
any way. It
is completely
de…ned by its
magnitude and
direction. It
can be drawn
Figure 3.1 as any one of
a set of equal -
Remark 1 length parallel
lines.
1. The de…nition of resultant of vectors above is equivalent to the parallelo-
gram law of vector addition.
2. To …nd the sum or resultant of any given set of vectors, we draw them as
a chain by;

(a) placing the initial point of the second vector to the terminal point of
the …rst, and likewise remaining vectors respectively.
(b) joining the initial point of the …rst vector with the terminal point of
the last.

3. The di¤ erence of vectors A and B denoted by A B is de…ned to be

vector C in which when it is added to B gives A:Equivalently, A B may
be de…ned as A + ( B).
4. If A = B, then A B is de…ned as the null or zero vector, it is represented
by the symbol 0. A zero vector has zero magnitude and its direction is
unde…ned.

6
For clarity of the de…nition of resultant of vectors and remark 1, we consider
the following examples.

Example 3.1: Find the resultant of the following vectors.

Figure 3.2

Solution: Let C be the sum or resultant of the given vectors, then to …nd C,
we:

(1) place the vector B at the end point of A;and

(2) join the initial point of A to the end of B: That is

Figure 3.3

Example 3.2: Find the resultant of the following vectors:

! ! ! !
(a) P Q + QR + RS + ST
! ! !
(b) AC + CR SR

Solution:

(a) Since the given vectors are arranged in chain, i.e. each begins where the
previous ends; then:
! ! ! ! ! !
P Q + QR + RS + ST = P R + RT

It implies that:
! ! !
P R + RT = P T
! ! ! ! !
Hence, the sum or resultant of the vectors P Q + QR + RS + ST = P T :

7
 ! ! Note that:
(b) Since AC + CR are arrange as a chain then we have: !
the vector RS
! ! ! ! ! denoted with
AC + CR SR = AR SR !
SR is the
negative vec-
But, !
tor of SR from
! ! ! the de…nition
SR = RS = RS
of negative
It follows that: vector; it
follows that
! ! ! ! ! ! !
AR SR = AR + RS = AS SR = RS:
! ! ! !
Hence,the sum or resultant of the vectors AC + CR SR = AS

Example 3.3: If the midpoint of the consecutive sides of a quadrilateral are

connected by straight lines, then prove that the resulting quadrilateral is a par-
allelogram.

Solution: Let A; B; C; D be the given quadrilateral and P; Q; R;and S be

the midpoints of its sides respectively. i.e.

Figure 3.5
! ! ! !
Also, let the vectors AB = a; BC = b; CD = c; and DA = d;
then,
! 1 !
AP = 2a = PB
! 1 !
BQ = 2 b = QC
! 1 !
CR = 2 c = RD
! 1 !
DS = 2 d = SA

It follows from …gure 3.5 that:

! ! !
P Q = P B + BQ = 12 (a + b)
! ! !
QR = QC + CR = 21 (b + c)
! ! ! 1
RS = RD + DS = 2 (c + d)
! ! !
SP = SA + AP = 21 (d + a)

8
Now, to prove that the quadrilateral P; Q; R; S is a parallelogram, we consider A parrallel-
the vectors: ogram is a
! ! ! ! ! ! plane shape
1 1
P Q = P B + BQ = 2 (a + b) and QR = QC + CR = 2 (b + c) with four
straight sides,
And then we prove that: the opposite
! ! 1 ! ! 1
sides being
P Q = SR = 2 (c + d) and QR = P S = 2 (d + a) parallel and
equal to each
Now consider
other.
! 1 ! 1
PQ = 2 (a + b) and QR = 2 (b + c)

But from …gure 3.5 we have:

a+b+c+d=0

This means that:

a= (b + c + d) and b = (a + c + d)

It follows that:
! 1 1 1 !
PQ = 2 (a + b) = 2 ( b c d + b) = 2 (c + d) = SR

And,
! 1 1 1 !
QR = 2 (b + c) = 2 ( a c d + c) = 2 (a + d) = P S

Hence, the resulting quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

4 Scalar Multiplication
Multiplication of a vector A by a scalar m produces a vector mA. The mag- If m is posi-
nitude of mA is jmj times the magnitude of A and the direction of mA is the tive, the vector
same or opposite of A: If m = 0 then mA = 0; null vector. mA have the
same direction
with A:
5 Laws of Vector Algebra If m is nega-
tive, the vector
Suppose A; B and C are vectors, m and n are scalars. The following laws hold:
mA have di-
rection oppo-
site to that of
A:

9
 1. (A + B) + C = A+ (B + C) Associative law for Addition

2. 9 a zero vector 0 3 8A; (A + 0) = (0 + A) = A Existence of zero element (Identity)

3. 8A; 9 ( A) 3 [(A + ( A)] = ( A) + A = 0 Existence of Negative Vectors (Inverse)

4. A + B = B + A Commutative Law for Addition

5. m (A + B) = mA + mB Distributive Law

6. (m + n) A = mA + nA Distributive Law

7. m (nA) = (mn)A Associative Law

8: 1(A) = A Unit Multiplication

Unit Vector
De…nition: Unit vector(s) are vectors having magnitude or length as 1unit:
If A is any vector with length jAj > 0; then the unit vector generated from A;
b which has the same direction as A is de…ned as A :i.e.
denoted by A jAj

b =
A A
jAj

6 Rectangular Unit Vectors

An important set of unit vectors, denoted by i; j and k are those having the
directions respectively of the positive x; y and z axes of a three - dimensional
rectangular coordinate system.

Figure 6.1

10
Part IV
Components and Direction
Cosine of a Vector
7 Components of a Vector
De…nition: Given two points A(x1 ; y1 ; z1 ) and B(x2 ; y2 ; z2 ) in an Euclidean
!
space, the component of vector AB is de…ned to be (x2 x1 ) ; (y2 y1 ) ;and
(z2 z1 ) with respect to the coordinate system.
!
Now, let (x2 x1 ) = x; (y2 y1 ) = y; (z2 z1 ) = z, then the vector AB in
terms of its component is de…ned to be the sum of xi;yj; and zk. i.e.
!
AB = xi+yj+zk

where i; j; k are the coordinate vectors along the x; y; z axes.

!
Example 7.1: Find the components of the vector P Q to the given initial point
P (1; 0; 0) and terminal point Q(2; 2; 1):

Solution: To …nd the components of a vector we use the formula

!
AB = h(x2 x1 ) i; (y2
y1 ) j; (z2 z1 ) ki
!
Then, it implies that the components of vector P Q will be
!
P Q = h(2 1) i; ( 2 0) j; (1 0) ki = hi; 2j; ki
!
Hence, the components of vector P Q = hi; 2j; ki :

Example 7.2: Given the component h2; 8; 1i of a vector V at a particular

initial point P ( 3; 8; 1), …nd the corresponding terminal point of V .

Solution: To …nd the corresponding terminal point of the given vector V;

we make use of the de…nition of components of a vector: i.e.

xi = (x2 x1 ) i;
yj = (y2 y1 ) j;
zk = (z2 z1 ) k:

Now, since the component of V = h2; 8; 1i = h2i; 8j; ki and its initial point
is P ( 3; 8; 1); then we have xi = (x2 x1 ) i to be:

2i = (x2 ( 3)) i = (x2 + 3) i

11
It implies that

2 = (x2 + 3)

and therefore,

x2 = 1

Also, by considering the component of V in the j and k directions, we have

yj = (y2 y1 ) j; and zk = (z2 z1 ) k to be:

8j = (y2 ( 8)) j = (y2 + 8) j; and 1k = (z2 1) k

This means that

8= (y2 + 8) ; and 1= (z2 1)

It follows that:

y2 = 0; and z2 = 0

Hence, the corresponding terminal point of V is the point with coordinates

( 1; 0; 0):

7.1 Magnitude (Modulus) of a Vector

! !
De…nition: Given a vector AB = xi + yj + zk;the magnitude of AB is de…ned
to be:
! p
AB = x2 + y 2 + z 2

Example 7.1.1: Given the vectors a = i + 2j + 2k; b = 3i 2j + k;and

c = 3i + 4j + 9k; …nd the magnitude of (i) a (ii) a + b + c (iii) a b + 4c

Solution: To …nd the magnitude of (i) a (ii) a + b + c (iii) a b+4c we use

! p !
the formula AB = x2 +y 2 +z 2 for AB = xi + yj + zk:
Now,
(i) a = i+2j+2k
It implies that
p p p
jaj = ( 1)2 +(2)2 +(2)2 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 9 = 3

Therefore, the magnitude of a = 3

(ii) a + b + c = ( i+2j+2k) + (3i 2j + k) + (3i+4j+9k)
By collecting like-terms we have

( i+2j+2k) + (3i 2j + k) + (3i+4j+9k)

= ( 1 + 3 + 3) i+ (2 2 + 4) j+ (2 + 1 + 9) k
= 5i + 4j + 12k

12
This means that the magnitude of a + b + c will be
p p
ja + b + cj = j5i + 4j + 12kj = 52 + 42 + 122 = 185 = 13:601

Therefore, the magnitude of a + b + c = 13:601

(iii) a b+4c = ( i+2j+2k) (3i 2j + k) + 4 (3i+4j+9k)

This means that

a b+4c = i+2j+2k 3i+2j k+12i+16j+36k

= ( 1 3 + 12) i+ (2 + 2 + 16) j+ (2 1 + 36) k
= 8i + 20j + 37k

Now, the magnitude of a b + 4c will be

p p
ja b + 4cj = j8i + 20j + 37kj = (8)2 +(20)2 +(37)2 = 1833 = 42: 814

Therefore, the magnitude of a b + 4c = 42: 814.

8 Position Vector
De…nition: Given a point P (x; y; z) in space, the vector r from the origin O
to the point P is de…ned to be the position vector of P ;written as:

r = xi + yj + zk

with magnitude p
jrj = x2 + y 2 + z 2

9 Direction Cosine of a Vector

!
De…nition: Given a position vector OP de…ned by r = xi + yj + zk, let ;
and be the angles made by r with the x; y;and z axes respectively,

Figure 9.1

13
 x y z
the terms cos = jrj ;
cos = jrj ; and cos = jrj are de…ned as the direction
p
cosine of r; where jrj = x +y +z 2 :
2 2

Example 9.1: If a position vector b de…ned by 4i 8j + k made an angle with

each of the coordinate axes, then what will be the value of those angles generated
by the vector?

Solution: Let ; and be the angles made by b with the x; y; z axes respec-
tively, then to …nd the ; and we use the de…nition of direction cosine of a
vector i.e.
x y z
cos = ; cos = ; and cos =
jrj jrj jrj
Now, since b = 4i 8j + k;it implies that
p
jbj = (4)2 +( 8)2 +(1)2 = 9

And,
x y
cos = jbj = 94 ; cos = jbj = 8
9 ; and cos = z
jbj = 1
9

This means that

1 4 1 8 1 1
= cos 9 ; = cos 9 ; and = cos 9

And it implies that

= 63:6o ; = 152:7o ; and = 83:6o

Therefore, the value of the angles generated by b = 4i 8j + k are = 63:6o ;

= 152:7o ; and = 83:6o :

14
Part V
Linear Dependence and Linear
Independence of Vectors
10 Linear Combination of Vectors
De…nition: Let v1 ; v2 ; v3 ; :::; vn be vectors and k1 ; k2 ; k3 ; :::; kn be scalars, A
vector denoted by V such that
V = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + ::: + kn vn
is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 ; v2 ; v3 ; :::; vn :

10.1 Linearly Dependent Vectors

De…nition: The vectors v1 ; v2 ; v3 ; :::; vn ; are said to linearly dependent if there
exist scalars k1 ; k2 ; k3 ; :::; kn such that k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + ::: + kn vn = 0 for
at least one ki is not equal to zero.

10.2 Linearly Independent Vectors

De…nition: The vectors v1 ; v2 ; v3 ; :::; vn ; are said to linearly independent if
there exist scalars k1 ; k2 ; k3 ; :::; kn such that k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + ::: + kn vn = 0
for all ki equal to zero.
Note that:
1. Two or more vectors are linearly dependent if and only if one of them is
a linear combination of the others.
2. The Vectors A and B are linearly dependent if and only if one is a multiple
of the other.
3. If the unknown scalars k1 ; k2 ; k3 ; :::; kn such that k1 = k2 = k3 = ::: =
kn = 0 is the only solution to the equation k1 v1 +k2 v2 +k3 v3 +:::+kn vn =
0; then the vectors v1 ; v2 ; v3 ; :::; vn ; are linearly independent.
4. If there exist a solution with some ki 6= 0 to the equation k1 v1 + k2 v2 +
k3 v3 + ::: + kn vn = 0; then the vectors v1 ; v2 ; v3 ; :::; vn ; are linearly
dependent.
5. The necessary and su¢ cient condition for any set of vectors A = x1 i +
y1 j + z1 k, B = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k, and C = x3 i + y3 j + z3 k to be linearly
independent is that the determinant
x1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2 6= 0
x3 y3 z3

15
Example 10.1: In each of the following cases, determine whether the vectors
are linearly dependent or linearly independent.

(a) A = i + j+2k; B = i+2j+5k and C =5i+3j+4k

!
(b) !
a = i 2j + k; b = 3i 2j 2k and !
c =2i 6j 3k

Solution:
(a) To determine whether the given set of vectors are linearly dependent or
linearly independent are as follows:

Now let k1 ;k2 and k3 be scalars, then from the de…nition of linearly dependent
and linearly independent of vectors we have:

k1 A + k2 B + k3 C = 0 (*)

And by substituting the given vector A = i + j+2k; B = i+2j+5k and C =5i+3j+4k

in equation ( ) we have

k1 (i + j+2k) + k2 (i+2j+5k) + k3 (5i+3j+4k) = 0 (**)

By expanding and collecting like terms we have equation ( ) as:

(k1 + k2 + 5k3 ) i + (k1 + 2k2 + 3k3 ) j + (2k1 + 5k2 + 4k3 ) k = 0 (***)

It follows from equation ( ) that:

k1 + k2 + 5k3 = 0 (1)
k1 + 2k2 + 3k3 = 0 (2)
2k1 + 5k2 + 4k3 = 0 (3)

To …nd the value of k1 ; k2 and k3 we use substitution method; and by subtract-

ing equation (2) from (1) we have

k2 + 2k3 = 0

And it follows that

k2 = 2k3 (4)
Or
k2
k3 = (5)
2
Also, to …nd k1 ; we put equation (4) in (3); i.e.

2k1 + 5k2 + 4k3 = 2k1 + 5(2k3 ) + 4k3

= 2k1 + 10k3 + 4k3
= 2k1 + 14k3 = 0

16
It follows that
2k1 = 14k3
And by dividing both sides by 2 we have

k1 = 7k3 (6)

Now, since k1 = 7k3 ; k2 = 2k3 and k3 = k22 = k17 ; it implies that the equation You can eas-
( ) has other solutions apart from k1 = k2 = k3 = 0; and hence, the given set of ily check for
vectors A = i + j+2k; B = i+2j+5k and C =5i+3j+4k are linearly dependent. one of the solu-
tion by letting
!
(b) To determine whether the given set of vectors !
a = i 2j + k; b = 3i 2j 2k k3 = 1 and
!
and c =2i 6j 3k are linearly dependent or linearly independent we use the then solve for
necessary and su¢ cient condition for any given set of vectors to be linearly k1 and k2 :
independent. i.e.
x1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2 6= 0
x3 y3 z3
where A = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k, B = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k, and C = x3 i + y3 j + z3 k.
!
Now, since we are given ! a = i 2j + k; b = 3i 2j 2k and !
c =2i 6j 3k; and
by comparing them with A = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k, B = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k, and
C = x3 i + y3 j + z3 k we have

x1 y1 z1 1 2 1
x2 y2 z2 = 3 2 2
x3 y3 z3 2 6 3

And by evaluating the determinant above we have

1 2 1
2 2 3 2 3 2
3 2 2 =1 ( 2) +1 =
6 3 2 3 2 6
2 6 3
1[( 2 3) ( 2 6)] + 2[(3 3) ( 2 2)] + 1[(3 6) ( 2 2)] = 30

1 2 1
Since 3 2 2 6= 0; it implies that the given set of vectors are linearly
2 6 3
independent.
!
Therefore, the vectors !
a = i 2j + k; b = 3i 2j 2k and ! c =2i 6j 3k; are
linearly independent.

Note that: The method used in example 10:1 (b) is more faster whenever you
are asked to determine whether given set of vectors are linearly dependent or
linearly independent.

17
Part VI
Product of Two Vectors
There are basically two kinds of products of two vectors; namely:

1. Scalar or Dot Product

2. Vector or Cross Product

11 Scalar or Dot Product

De…nition: Let a and b be vectors, the scalar product of a and b denoted
with a b or (a; b) is de…ned as the product of the magnitudes of a and b and
the cosine of the angle between them. i.e.

a b = jaj jbj cos

Note that:

1. If a and b are vectors, then a b = b a:

2. If a and b are perpendicular to each other, then a b = jaj jbj cos 90 = 0; Two vectors
and it follows that for the rectangular unit vectors i; j and k the scalar are perpendic-
products i j = j k = k i = 0: ular to each
other if the
3. If a and b are parallel to each other, then a b = jaj jbj cos 0 = jaj jbj; angle between
and it follows that for the unit vectors i; j and k the scalar products them is 90
i i = j j = k k = 1:
4. If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k, and b = b1 i + b2 j + b2 k, their scalar product is
a b = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) (b1 i + b2 j + b2 k) =a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 :
5. If is the angle between a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k; then
a b a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
cos = = p p
jaj jbj a21 +a22 +a23 b21 +b22 +b23

!
Example 11.1: Find the scalar product of !
a = i + 2j and b = 3i 2j + k:

Solution: To …nd the scalar product of the given vectors we use the formula

a b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

Which means that

a b = (i + 2j) (3i 2j + k) = (1)(3) + (2)( 2) + (0)(1) = 3 4+0= 1

Therefore a b = 1.

18
Example 11.2: If a = i + 3j 2k and b = 4i 2j+4k; what will be the value
of the (3a b) (a+2b)

Solution: Given a = i + 3j 2k and b = 4i 2j+4k; to compute for the value

of (3a b) (a+2b) is as follows:
Now, by substituting a and b in (3a b) (a+2b) we have:

(3a b) (a+2b) = (3(i + 3j 2k) (4i 2j+4k)) ((i + 3j 2k)+2(4i 2j+4k))

= ((3i + 9j 6k) (4i 2j+4k)) ((i + 3j 2k)+(8i 4j+8k))
= ( i + 11j 10k) (9i j+6k)
= ( 1)(9) + (11)( 1) + ( 10)(6)
= ( 9 11 60)
= 80

Example 11.3: Compute for the angle between the vectors a = 12i 4j+3k
and b = 2i + 6j+3k:

Solution: To compute for the angle between the vectors a = 12i 4j+3k and
b = 2i + 6j+3k; we let to be the angle between the given vectors and then
we consider the formula
a b a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
cos = = p p
jaj jbj a21 +a22 +a23 b21 +b22 +b23

And by substituting a = 12i 4j+3k and b = 2i + 6j+3k in the above stated

formula we have
a b (12i 4j+3k) (2i + 6j+3k)
cos = =
jaj jbj j12i 4j+3kj j2i + 6j+3kj

Which implies that

(12i 4j+3k) (2i + 6j+3k) (12)(2)+( 4)(6)+(3)(3) 9

= p p =
j12i 4j+3kj j2i + 6j+3kj 2 2
12 + ( 4) + 32 2 2
2 +6 +3 2 91

And It follows that

9
cos = :
91
1
But since we are to compute for only, then we take the cosine inverse (cos ) func-
9
tion of both sides of cos = 91 . i.e.

1 1 9
cos (cos ) = cos = 84:32
91

Therefore, = 84:32 :

19
 !
Example 11.4: Find the value of y for which the vectors A = yi + 2j k and
!
B = i + j + k will be perpendicular to each other.

Solution: Recall that when two vectors are perpendicular to each their dot
product is equal to zero. i.e. a b = 0: By using this condition we have
! !
A B = (yi + 2j k) (i + j + k) = 0

And by carrying-out the scalar product we have

(yi + 2j k) (i + j + k) = y + 2 1=0

By simplifying y + 2 1 = 0 we have

y+1=0

And by making y the subject of the formula we have

y= 1

Therefore, the value of y for which the given vectors will be perpendicular is
y = 1:

11.1 Geometrical Interpretation of Scalar Product

The scalar product of two vectors a and b is the product of one vector and the
length of the projection of the other in the direction of the …rst. i.e.

Figure 11.1.1
! !
Now, let OA = a and OB = b; then from the de…nition of scalar product of
two vectors we have
! !
a b = OA OB cos
!
ON ! !
But cos = ! from …gure 11.1.1, and by substituting it in a b = OA OB cos
OB
we have:
!
! ! ! ! ON
a b = OA OB cos = OA OB !
OB

20
 !
Since OB can cancel each other, then we have:

! !
a b = OA ON

! ! ! !
But recall that OA = a; by substituting OA with a in a b = OA ON we
have
!
a b = jaj ON
!
By making ON the subject of formula we have

! a b
ON = b b
=a
jaj

! a b
Hence, the projection of vector b on a (P roj:ba ) = ON = b b
=a
jaj

11.1.1 Projection of One Vector on Another

De…nition: Let a and b be vectors, the projection of b on a (P roj:ba ) is
de…ned as
a b
P roj:ba = =a b b:
jaj
Similarly, the projection of a on b (P roj:ab ) is de…ned as

b a b
P roj:ab = = b a:
jbj

Example 11.1.1: Find the projection of the vector a =4i 4j+7k on b = i 2j + k:

Solution: To …nd the projection of the vector a =4i 4j+7k on b = i 2j + k

we use the formula
b a b
P roj:ab = = b a:
jbj
By substituting the given vectors in the formula we have

b a (i 2j + k) (4i 4j+7k)
P roj:ab = =
jbj ji 2j + kj
(4 + 8 + 7) 19
= p =p
12 + ( 2)2 + 12 6

19
Therefore, the P roj:ab = p
6

21
Example 11.1.2:Find the resolved part of the vector b = 6i 3j 9k in the
direction a =2i+2j k:

Solution: To …nd the resolved part of the vector b = 6i 3j 9k in the direction

a =2i+2j k it means you are to compute for the projection of the vector b on
a.
Now, by using the formula
a b
P roj:ba = b b:
=a
jaj
We have
a b (2i+2j k) (6i 3j 9k)
P roj:ba = =
jaj j2i+2j kj
(12 6 + 9) 15 5
= p =p =
2 2
2 + 2 + ( 1) 2 9 3
5
Therefore, the P roj:ba = :
3
Example 11.1.3: Find the projection of the vector r = 4i 3j + k on the line
passing through the point (6; 4; 5) and (2; 3; 1) :

Solution: To …nd the projection of the vector r = 4i 3j + k on the line passing

through the point (6; 4; 5) and (2; 3; 1) is as follows:

Now, let the given points be A = (6; 4; 5) and B = (2; 3; 1) ; then from the
!
de…nition of components of a vector we have the components of vector AB as:
!
AB = (2 6)i + ( 3 4)j + ( 1 ( 5))k = 4i 7j+4k
It follows that the projection of the vector r = 4i 3j + k on the line passing
through the point (6; 4; 5) and (2; 3; 1) will be
!
AB r ( 4i 7j+4k) (4i 3j + k)
P roj:rAB
! = ! =
AB j 4i 7j+4kj

( 16 + 21 + 4) 9
= p = p =1
2 2
( 4) + ( 7) + (4)2 81
Therefore, the projection of the vector r = 4i 3j + k on the line passing through
the point (6; 4; 5) and (2; 3; 1) is equal to 1:

11.2 Application of Scalar Product

As we earlier demonstrated, scalar (dot) product was applied in …nding the
projection of one vector on another; other application of it is in determining the
work done by a force in moving an object from one point to another.

22
Now, if a force F acting on a particle, which is displaced from point A to B;
then
!
W ork done = (Componemts of F along AB)(Displacement)
!
= jFj AB cos
!
= F AB
Example 11.2.1: Find the work done by a force F = 2i+3j + k in moving an
object from A( 2; 3; 1) to B(4; 2; 5):

Solution: To …nd the work done by the force F = 2i+3j + k in moving an

object from A( 2; 3; 1) to B(4; 2; 5) we use the formula
!
W orkdone = F AB
!
But the displacement vector AB is not given, and by using the de…nition of
components of a vector we have it as:
!
AB = (4 ( 2))i + (2 3)j + (5 1)k =6i j+4k
!
Since we have found the displacement vector AB; it follows that
!
F AB = (2i+3j + k) (6i j+4k)
= (2)(6) + (3)( 1) + (1)(4)
= 12 3 + 4
= 13
Therefore, the work done by the force F = 2i+3j + k is 13 joules:

Example 11.2.2: If a particle is displaced by a force F = 4i+5j+2k from point

P to Q; …nd the work done by the force if the displacement vector from P to Q
is r = 2i+2j + k

Solution
!
Given: F = 4i+5j+2k and P Q = r = 2i+2j + k;to …nd the work done by the
given force in displacing the particle from P to Q we use the formula
!
W ork done = F AB:
!
By substituting the given force F = 4i+5j+2k and displacement vector P Q =
! !
r = 2i+2j + k in the W ork done = F AB = F P Q we have
W ork done = (4i+5j+2k) ( 2i+2j + k)
= (4)( 2) + (5)(2) + (2)(1)
= 8 + 10 + 2
= 4
Therefore, the work done by the force is 4 joules:

23
Example 11.2.3: Find the work done in moving apparticle along a vector
d = 3i + j 5k if the force applied has a magnitude of 6units in the direction
of r = 2i j k:

Solution p
Given: d = 3i + j 5k as the displacement vector, and 6units as the magni-
tude of the force F in the direction of r = 2i j k; to …nd the work done in
moving that particle along the given displacement vector d; we …rst of all …nd
F, then substitute it and d in the formula
!
W orkdone = F AB:
p
Now, since the magnitude of F is 6units in the direction of r = 2i j k;
then we can …nd F by generating a unit vector from r; having the same direction
r
as it and then multiply it with the given magnitude of F:i.e. F = jFj jrj :
p r
By substituting jFj = 6; and r = 2i j k in F = jFj jrj we have
!
p 2i j k p 2i j k
F= 6 p = 6 p = 2i j k
22 +( 1)2 +( 1)2 6

Since we have found F = 2i j k; then we substitute it and the given dis-

placement vector d = 3i + j 5k in W orkdone = F d: It follows that

F d = (2i j k) (3i + j 5k)

= (2)(3) + ( 1)(1) + ( 1)( 5)
= 6 1+5
= 10

Therefore, the work done in moving a particle along a vector d = 3i + j 5k is

10 joules:

12 Vector or Cross Product

De…nition: Let a and b be vectors, the vector product of a and b denoted
with a b or [ab] is a vector quatity, de…ned as

a b
b = jaj jbj sin u

b is a unit vector normal to the plane

where is the angle between a and b; u
combining a and b:

24
Remark 12.1
1. If a and b are vectors, then a b 6= b a; but rather a b= (b a) :
2. The magnitude of the vector a b is equal to the area of paralllelogram
of which a and b are adjacent sides. i.e.
ja b j = jaj jbj sin ; since jb
bj = jjaj jbj sin u uj = 1:
And half of the magnitude of the vector a b is equal to the area of the
triangle formed by a and b:i.e.
1
Area of triangle = 2 ja bj = 12 jaj jbj sin :

3. The direction of a b is always perpendicular to the plane of a and b,

where as a,b and a b form a right-handed system.
4. If k is a scalar, then k (a b) = (ka) b:
b = a (kb) = k jaj jbj sin u
5. If a and b are parallel to each other, then = 0 ; which implies that
sin = 0 and it follows that a b = 0:
6. If a = b; then a a = b b = 0: It follows that for the rectangular
unit vectors i; j and k the vector products i i = j j = k k = 0 since
=0 :
7. If a and b are perpendicular, then a b = jaj jbj sin 90 u b = jaj jbj u
b since
sin 90 = 1: It follows that for the unit vectors i; j and k the vector product
i j = jij jjj sin 90 k = (1)(1)(1)k = k (Since k is the unit vector perpen-
dicular to the to the plane combining a and b) :And hence,
i j= k (12.1)
j k= i (12.2)
k i= j (12.3)
Similarly,
(j i) = (i j) = k (12.4)
(k j) = (j k) = i (12.5)
(i k) = (k i) = j (12.6)

8. If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k, and b = b1 i + b2 j + b2 k, then
a b = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k)
i j k
a a3 a a3 a a2
= a1 a2 a3 = i 2 j 1 +k 1
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b 1 b2 b3
= [a2 b3 a3 b2 ]i [a1 b3 a3 b1 ]j + [a1 b2 a2 b1 ]k

25
Example 12.1: Evaluate a b if a =2i+3j+4k and b = i + j + k:

Solution: To evaluate a b if a =2i+3j+4k and b = i + j + k;we use the

i j k
determinant method i.e. a b = a1 a2 a3 for a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k, and
b 1 b 2 b3
b = b1 i + b2 j + b2 k:
It implies that a b = (2i+3j+4k) (i + j + k) will be

i j k
3 4 2 4 2 3
2 3 4 = i j +k
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
= [(3)(1) (4)(1)]i [(2)(1) (4)(1)]j + [(2)(1) (3)(1)]k
= [3 4]i [2 4]j + [2 3]k
= i+2j k

Therefore, a b= i+2j k:

Example 12.2: Determine the area of the parallelogram formed by the vec-
!
tors !
a =3i+3j+10k and b = 5i+6j+22k:

Solution: To determine the area of the parallelogram formed by the given To …nd the
! !
vectors !
a =3i+3j+10k and b = 5i+6j+22k we …rst of all compute ! a b and area, you con-
then use the formula ja bj = jaj jbj sin to compute for the area. sider number
!
Now, !a b = (3i+3j+10k) (5i+6j+22k) will be: 2 of remark
12.1.

i j k
3 10 3 10 3 3
3 3 10 = i j +k
6 22 5 22 5 6
5 6 22
= [66 60]i [66 50]j + [18 15]k
= 6i 16j+3k
!
Since !a b = 6i 16j+3k;then it follows that the area of the paralllelogram
will be:

ja bj = j6i 16j+3kj
p
= 62 + ( 16)2 + 32
p
= 301 = 17: 349

Therefore, the area of the parallelogram formed by the given vectors !

a =3i+3j+10k
!
and b = 5i+6j+22k is 17: 349 units:

26
Example 12.3: Find a unit vector which is perpendicular to !
a =4i j+3k
!
and b = 2i + j 2k:

Solution: To …nd a unit vector which is perpendicular to ! a = 4i j + 3k and Note that:

! !
b = 2i + j 2k; we compute for ! a b and then divide result obtained by The idea we
! !
a b
the magnitude of of it (i.e. ! used here is
! which is one of the unit vector perpendicular
a b from de…ni-
!
to both !
a and b ). tion of cross
! product.
Now, !a b = (4i j + 3k) ( 2i + j 2k) will be:

i j k
1 3 4 3 4 1
4 1 3 = i j +k
1 2 2 2 2 1
2 1 2
= [2 3]i [ 8 + 6]j + [4 2]k
= i+2j+2k
!
Since !a b = i+2j+2k;then it follows that one of the unit vector perpen-
!
dicular to !
a = 4i j + 3k and b = 2i + j 2k will be:
! !
a b i+2j+2k
! ! =
a b j i+2j+2kj
i+2j+2k
= p
( 1)2 + (2)2 + 22
i+2j+2k
=
9

Therefore, i+2j+2k
9 is one of the unit vectors perpendicular vector to !
a =
!
4i j + 3k and b = 2i + j 2k:

Exercise
! !
1. If !
a = i+3j 2k and b = 4i 2j+4k; then …nd the value of (i) !
a b (ii)
! !
2!
a + b (!
a 2 b ):
!
2. Find the angle between the vectors (i) !
a = 3i + 2j 6k and b = 4i
! !
3j + k (ii) a = 2i + 3j k and b = i + j + 2k:
3. Compute for the projection of 2i 3j + 6k on the vector i + 2j + 2k:
4. If a = 6i 3j 9k and b =2i+2j k;then compute for the resolved part a
in the direction b:

5. Find the projection of the vector 4i 3j + k on the line passing through

the point (2; 3; 1) and ( 2; 4; 3) :

27
 !
6. Determine the value of y for which ! a = 2i + 3j k and b = 4i yj 2k
will be perpendicular.
!
7. Show that the vectors !a = 2i j + k; b = i 3j 5k and ! c = 3i 4j 4k
form the side of a right angled triangle.
8. If a = (i + 2j + 8k) and b = (2i + 3j k) ;then prove that the vectors are
perpendicular.
9. Find the value of such that the scalar product of the vector i + j + k
with the unit vector parallel to the sum of i + 2j + 3k and 2i + 4j 5k is
equal to 1:
10. Find the work done by a force F = 6i j+4k in moving an object along
r =2i+3j + k:
11. If a force of magnitude 6units acting parallel to 2i 2j + k displaces a
particle from (1; 2; 3) to (5; 4; 7);…nd the work done by the force.
12. in moving a particle
p along a vector d = 3i + j 5k if the force applied has
a magnitude of 6units in the direction of r = 2i j k:

28
Part VII
Di¤erentiation and Integration of
Vectors
13 Di¤erentiation of Vector of Function
Recall that the derivative of a real valued function y = f (x) is de…ned as

dy f (x + x) f (x)
f 0 (x) = = lim
dx x!0 x

Similarly, if we have a vector function F(t) of scalar variable, then

d(F(t)) F(t + t) F(t)

F0 (t) = = lim
dt t!0 t

13.1 Vector Function of a Scalar Variable

De…niton: A function F is called a vector function of a single variable t; if to
every t of the range of values of t there corresponds a vector F written as F(t):
Note that:

1. The vector function F = F(t) is sometimes expressed in it‘s components

form as F = f1 (t)i+ f2 (t)j+ f3 (t)k:
2. F(t) is said to be a continuous vector function of t at t = a if lim F(t) =
t!a
F(a):
3. If r(t) is a position vector joining the origin O of a coordinate system and
any point (x; y; z);then

r(t) = x(t)i+y(t)j+z(t)k:

As t changes, the terminal of r(t) describes a space curve with parametric

equation
x=f1 (t);y=f2 (t);z=f3 (t)
and it follows that
dr dx(t) dy(t) dz(t)
= i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt
and,
d2 r d2 x(t) d2 y(t) d2 z(t)
= i + j + k
dt2 dt2 dt2 dt2

29
 4. If a particle moves along a space curve with parametric equation x=f1 (t);y=f2 (t);z=f3 (t)
such that t represents time;then r(t) = x(t)i+y(t)j+z(t)k is the position
vector of that particle along the curve. And it follows that the velocity
v and acceleration a of the particle are de…ned as:

dr dx(t) dy(t) dz(t)

v= = i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt
and;
d2 r d2 x(t) d2 y(t) d2 z(t)
a= = i + j + k
dt2 dt2 dt2 dt2

13.1.1 Rules for Di¤erentiation of Vector Function

If f ; g and h are di¤erentiable vector functions of scalar t and is a di¤erentiable
scalar function of the same variable t , then

d(f g) df dg
1. =
dt dt dt
d( f ) df d
2. = + f
dt dt dt
d(f g) dg df
3. =f + g
dt dt dt
d(f g) dg df
4. =f + g
dt dt dt
d(f g h) dh dg df
5. =f g +f h+ g h
dt dt dt dt
d(f g h) dh dg dg
6. =f g +f h+ f h
dt dt dt dt
d[f (g h)] dh dg df
7. =f g +f h + (g h)
dt dt dt dt
d(f (g h)) dh dg dg
8. = f (g )+f ( h) + (f h)
dt dt dt dt
dr d2 r
Example 13.1: If r =(t + 1)i+(t2 + t + 1)j+(t3 + t2 + t + 1)k; …nd and 2 :
dt dt
d(i) d(j) d(k)
Solution: Since i; j; and k are constant vectors, then = = = 0:
dt dt dt
dr dx(t) dy(t) dz(t)
It follows from dt = dt i + dt j + dt k that

dr d(t + 1) d(t2 + t + 1) dz(t3 + t2 + t + 1)

= i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt
= i + (2t + 1)j + (3t2 + 2t + 1)k:

30
And,

d2 r d dr d(1) d(2t + 1) d(3t2 + 2t + 1)

= = i+ j+ k
dt2 dt dt dt dt dt
= 2j + (6t + 2)k:

dr d2 r
Therefore, = i + (2t + 1)j + (3t2 + 2t + 1)k and 2 = 2j + (6t + 2)k:
dt dt
Example 13.1: If a particle moves along a space curve with parametric equa-
tion x(t)=(t3 );y(t)=(t2 5);z(t)=(2t + 1) where t is time;…nd the components
of its veclocity and acceleration at t = 1:

Solution
Given: x(t)=(t3 );y(t)=(t2 5);z(t)=(2t + 1)
Let r be the position vector, then by substituting the given x(t);y(t); and z(t) in
r(t) = x(t)i+y(t)j+z(t)k we have

r(t) = (t3 )i+(t2 5)j+(2t + 1)k

dr dr dx(t) dy(t) dz(t)

Now, since velocity v = ;then it follows from dt = dt i + dt j + dt k
dt
d(t3 ) d(t2 5) dz(2t + 1)
v = i+ j+ k
dt dt dt
= 3t2 i + 2tj+2k:

At t = 1;
dr
v= = 3(1)2 i + 2(1)j+2k =3i + 2j+2k
dt
d2 r d2 r d2 x(t) d2 y(t)
Again, since the acceleration a = ; it follows from dt2 = dt2 i + dt2 j +
2
dt2
d z(t)
dt2 k

d dr d
a = = 3t2 i + 2tj+2k
dt dt dt
d(3t2 ) d(2t) d(2)
= i+ j+ k
dt dt dt
= 6ti+2j

At t = 1;
d2 r
a= = 6(1)i+2j =6i+2j
dt2
Therefore, the velocity and acceleration at t = 1 are v =3i+2j+2k and a =6i+2j:

31
 d(f g) d(f g)
Example 13.2: Find (i) (ii) if f =3t2 i 2tj+3t3 k and g =
dt dt
t
3e i + 2 cos tk:

Solution
Given: f =3t2 i 2tj+3t3 k and g = 3e t i + 2 cos tk
d(f g) dg df
(i) By using =f + g; we have:
dt dt dt
t
d(f g) d 3e i + 2 cos tk d 3t2 i 2tj+3t3 k
= 3t2 i 2tj+3t3 k + 3e t i + 2 cos tk
dt dt dt
= 3t2 i 2tj+3t3 k 3e t i 2 sin tk + 6ti 2j+9t2 k 3e t i + 2 cos tk
= 9t2 e t
6t3 sin t + (18te t
+18t2 cos t)
t
= 9(t 2)te 6t2 (t sin t 3 cos t)

d(f g) t
Therefore, = 9(t 2)te 6t2 (t sin t 3 cos t):
dt
d(f g) dg df
(ii) By using =f + g; we have:
dt dt dt
t
d(f g) d(3e i+2 cos tk) d(3t2 i 2tj + 3t3 k)
= 3t2 i 2tj+3t3 k + (3e t i+2 cos tk)
dt dt dt
= 3t2 i 2tj+3t3 k 3e t i 2 sin tk + 6ti 2j+9t2 k (3e t i+2 cos tk)
i j k i j k
= 3t2 2t 3t3 + 6t 2 9t2
t
3e 0 2 sin t 3e t 0 2 cos t

Now,

i j k
3t2 2t 3t3 = [4t sin t 0]i [ 6t2 sin t + 9t3 e t
]j + [0 + 9t3 e t
]k
t
3e 0 2 sin t
= 4t sin ti + (6t2 sin t 9t3 e t )j + 9t3 e t k

and,

i j k
6t 2 9t2 = [ 4 cos t 0]i [12t cos t 27t2 e t ]j + [0 + 6t2 e t ]k
3e t 0 2 cos t
= 4 cos ti + ( 12t cos t + 27t2 e t )j + 6t2 e t k

This means that·

i j k i j k
d(f g)
= 3t2 2t 3t3 + 6t 2 9t2
dt t
3e 0 2 sin t 3e t 0 2 cos t

32
= 4t sin ti + (6t2 sin t 9t3 e t )j + 9t3 e t k + 4 cos ti + ( 12t cos t + 27t2 e t )j + 6t2 e t k
and by collecting like terms we have

d(f g)
= 4(t sin t cos t)i + (6t(t sin t 2 cos t) 9t2 e t (t 3))j+3t2 e t (3t 2)k:
dt
d(f g)
Therefore, = 4(t sin t cos t)i + (6t(t sin t 2 cos t) 9t2 e t (t 3))j+3t2 e t (3t
dt
2)k:

14 Integrationtion of Vector Function

Let F(t) = f1 (t)i+ f2 (t)j+ f3 (t)k be a continuous vector function in a speci…ed
interval, then
Z Z Z Z
F(t)dt = i f1 (t)dt + j f2 (t)dt + k f3 (t)dt

is called an inde…nite integral of F(t):If there is a vector function g(t) such that
d
F(t) = dt (g(t)) ; then
Z Z
d
F(t)dt = (G(t)) dt = G(t) + k
dt
where k is an arbitrary constant independent of t. Also, the integral
Z a Z a
d a
F(t)dt = (G(t)) dt = [G(t)]b = G(b) G(a)
b b dt

is de…ned as de…nite integral of F(t)dt between the limits t = a and t = b.

R R2
Example 14.1: If F(t) =(t t2 )i+2t3 j 3k;…nd (i) F(t)dt (ii) 1 F(t)dt

Solution
Given:F(t)
Z =(tZ t2 )i+2t3 j 3k; then Z Z Z
2 3 2 3
(i) F(t)dt = (t t )i+2t j 3k dt = i (t t )dt + j 2t dt k 3dt

t2 t3 2t4
= i+ j 3tk+C
2 3 4
Z
t2 t3 t4
Hence, F(t)dt = 2 3 i+ 2 j 3tk+C:

33
 Z
t2 t3 t4
(ii) Since F(t)dt = 2 3 i+ 2 j 3tk+C; it implies that

Z 2 2
t2 t3 t4
F(t)dt = i+ j 3tk
1 2 3 2 1
22 23 24 12 13 14
= i+ j 3(2)k i+ j 3(1)k
2 3 2 2 3 2
2 1 1 5 15
= i + 8j 6k i+ j 3k = i+ j 3k
3 6 2 6 2
Z 2
5 15
Therefore, F(t)dt = 6i + 2 j 3k:
1 Z 2
2 3 d2 r
Example 14.2: If r(t) = 5t i+tj t k;show that (r dt2 )dt = 14i+75j 15k
1
Solution Z 2
d2 r
Given: r(t) =5t2 i+tj t3 k; to show that (r dt2 )dt = 14i+75j 15k we
Z 2 1
2
consider the LHS. i.e. (r ddt2r )dt
1
d2 r
Now, by considering (r dt2 ) only we have

d2 r d d
(r ) = 5t2 i+tj t3 k 5t2 i+tj t3 k
dt2 dt dt
d
= 5t2 i+tj t3 k 10ti + j 3t2 k
dt
= 5t2 i+tj t3 k (10i 6tk)
It follows that
i j k
5t2 i+tj t3 k (10i 6tk) = 5t2 t t3
10 0 6t
= [ 6t2 0]i [ 30t3 + 10t3 ]j + [0 10t]k
= 6t2 i + 20t3 j 10tk
2
Since (r ddt2r ) = 6t2 i + 20t3 j+10tk; it implies that
Z 2 Z 2
d2 r
(r )dt = 6t2 i + 20t3 j 10tk dt
1 dt2 1
2
= 2t3 i + 5t4 j 5t2 k 1
= 2(2)3 i + 5(2)4 j 5(2)2 k 2(1)3 i + 5(1)4 j 5(1)2 k
= [ 16i+80j 20k] [ 2i+5j 5k] = 14i+75j 15k
Z 2
Therefore, F(t)dt = 14i+75j 15k:
1

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Example 14.3: If the acceleration of a particle is a(t) =12 cos 2ti 8 sin 2tj 16tk;
…nd the velocity v and displacement r when both are zero at t = 0.

Solution
Given: a(t) =12 cos 2ti 8 sin 2tj 16tk;to …nd v and r we consider the de…nition
of acceleration and velocity, i.e.
dv dr
a= and v =
dt dt
This means that
Z Z Z Z
dv = (a(t)) dt; and dr = (v(t)) dt

It follows that

Z Z Z
dv = (a(t)) dt = (12 cos 2ti 8 sin 2tj 16tk) dt

12 sin 2t 8 cos 2t 16t2

= i+ j k+C
2 2 2
= 6 sin 2ti+4 cos 2tj 8t2 k+C

Hence v = 6 sin 2ti+4 cos 2tj 8t2 k+C:

Now, at v = 0; t = 0 we have

0 = 6 sin 2(0)i+4 cos 2(0)j 8(0)2 k+C

= 0 + 4j+C

By making C the subject of the formula we have C = 4j: And by substitutingn

it in v = 6 sin 2ti+4 cos 2tj 8t2 k+C we have

v = 6 sin 2ti+4(cos 2t 1)j 8t2 k

Also,
Z Z Z
dr = (v(t)) dt = 6 sin 2ti+4(cos 2t 1)j 8t2 k dt

6 cos 2t sin 2t 8t3

= i+4 t j k+D
2 2 3
4 sin 2t 8t3
= 3 cos 2ti+ 4t j k+D
2 3
8t3
Hence r = 3 cos 2ti+ (2 sin 2t 4t) j 3 k+D:

35
Now, at r = 0; t = 0 we have

8(0)3
0 = 3 cos 2(0)i+ (2 sin 2(0) 4(0)) j k+D
3
= 3i+D

By making D the subject of the formula we have D = 3i; and by substitutingn

3
it in r = 3 cos 2ti+ (2 sin 2t 4t) j 8t3 k+D we have

8t3
r =3 (1 cos 2t) i+ (2 sin 2t 4t) j k
3
8t3
Therefore,v = 6 sin 2ti+4(cos 2t 1)j 8t2 k and r =3 (1 cos 2t) i+ (2 sin 2t 4t) j 3 k:

36