MODULE 1
■ Electric Charge
Property of matter causing force in electric & magnetic fields.
Unit: Coulomb (C), .
Law of conservation: Charge cannot be created/destroyed, only transferred.
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
■ Voltage (Potential Difference)
Difference in potential energy between two points.
High P.D → High voltage; Low P.D → Low voltage.
■ Electric Current
Flow of charge: .
Unit: Ampere (A).
■ Electric Field
Region where electric force acts.
Represented by imaginary lines of force.
■ Electric Potential
Energy capable of doing work.
■ Electric Energy
Work done by moving charge from one point to another.
Unit: Joule (J) = 1V/1C.
■ Electric Power
Rate of producing/using electrical energy.
Unit: Watt (W), .
■ Active Elements
Supply/amplify/control energy.
Examples: Voltage source, Current source, Transistor, Diode.
■ Passive Elements
Receive/store energy.
Examples: Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor, Transformer.
■ Resistors
Control flow of current, set voltage.
★Linear resistors: Obey Ohm’s law (R ∝ V/I, constant resistance).
★Non-linear resistors: Resistance changes with voltage, temperature, or light.
Types: Variable resistor, Fixed resistor.
Fixed Resistors:
★Carbon composition: Carbon powder in plastic case.
★Film type: Thin film & Thick film → thin conducting layer on ceramic/glass rod, tube, or plate.
★Wire wound: Nichrome wire wound on ceramic & coated with insulator.
Variable Resistors:
Control current/voltage in circuits.
★Wire wound: Nichrome wire on ceramic, adjustable tap.
★Potentiometer: 3 terminals (outer = fixed, middle = variable).
★Trimmer: Small screw adjustment for fine tuning.
■ Inductors (Coils)
Store energy in magnetic field when current flows.
Uses: Tuning, filter circuits, radios, transformers.
Types:
★Air-core: Coil on cardboard (low inductance).
★Iron-core: Coil on solid iron core.
★Ferrite-core: Coil on ferrite material.
★Variable inductor: Like ferrite core but adjustable.
■ Capacitors
Store electrical energy.
★Dielectric: 2 conductive plates separated by insulator.
★Fixed Capacitors:
Capacitance value cannot change.
★Electrostatic type.
Ceramic capacitor: Uses ceramic material as dielectric.
■ Types of Capacitors
★Mica Capacitor: capacitor value 1 pF to 10000 pF, expensive.
★Plastic Capacitor: Uses plastic as dielectric.
★Paper Capacitor: Strips of Al foil + treated paper dielectric.
★Electrolytic Capacitor (Fixed):
Made of metal plate, it have definte polarity supperated by thin metal
Types:
★Aluminium electrolytic → high voltage, cheap.
★Tantalum electrolytic → better than aluminium, long life, stable.
■ Capacitor Charging
■Connected to DC source through resistor.
■Electrons move one plates to another.
(One plat=+ ve another=■Ve)
■Create an electric field btw the plate
■Charge built voltage across the capacitor increase s
■Capacitor rises until it equals supply voltage.
■Current flow stoped
Formula:
Vc(t) = V [1 - e^(-t/RC)]
■ Capacitor Discharging
■Disconnected from supply, ■Connected to resistor.
■Stored energy flows back, ■Voltage decreases gradually.
Formula:
Vc(t) = V e^(-t/RC)
■ Time Constant
time taken to charge/discharge significantly.
■■ Ohm’s Law
Current through conductor ∝ Voltage applied.
I∝V
I=V/R
V=I R
R=V/I
■ Resistors in Series
Total Resistance: sum of all resistor
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Voltage divides: V slipt across each resistor
V1 = I R1
V2 = I R2
V3 = I R3
■ Resistors in Parallel
1/[(1/R1)+(1/R2)+(1/R3)]}
★Current splits:
I1=V/R1
I2=V/R2
I3=V/R3
■ Capacitors
Series:
CT} =1/[(1/C1)+(1/C2)+(1/C3)]}
Parallel:
CT = C1 + C2 + C3....
■ Inductors
Series:
Total inductance=Sum of all inductance
LT = L1 + L2 + L3....
Parallel:
Reciprocal of total inductance=Sum of reciprocal of each inductance
LT} = 1/[(1/L1)+(1/L2)+(1/L3)]}
■ Voltage Division Rule
In series: Voltage across each resistor proportional to its resistance and to the applied voltage
V1 = (R1/RT) V,
V2 = (R2/RT) V
■ Current Division Rule
In parallel: Current divides inversely proportional to resistance and to the total current.
I1 = (R2/R1+R2) I}
I2 = (R1/R1+R2) I}
■ Power Supply
■Provides energy to run electrical devices.
■Converts one form of electrical energy → another.
AC (Alternating Current)
Magnitude & direction change periodically with time.
Source: Generators.
DC (Direct Current)
Flows in one direction, constant magnitude.
Source: Batteries.
Voltage Source
★Ideal Voltage Source:
Supplies constant ■voltage at all times.
■Independent of current drawn.
Example: Battery, generator.
Graph: Voltage remains constant.
★Practical Voltage Source:
■Has small internal resistance.
■Voltage slightly decreases as load current increases.
Current Source
★Ideal Current Source:
Supplies constant current regardless of voltage/load.
Graph: Current stays constant.
★Practical Current Source:
Current varies slightly with load.
Graph: Current decreases with load.
Battery
■Stores chemical energy and converts to electrical energy.
■Works on electrochemical reaction.
■Provides constant voltage to circuits.
■Has two terminals: +ve and –ve.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
★KCL (Current Law):
Sum of currents entering a junction = sum leaving.
★KVL(Voltege Law):
In a closed loop, sum of voltages = 0.