CHAPTER 10

Welding

10.1 INTRODUCTION
In engineering practice a useful product is usually an assembly of many parts. The parts
themselves are fabricated by joining different pieces together due to complexities of design,
its bulk or economy. Welding, brazing and soldering are the joining process for metallic
parts.
Welding is a complex metal fabrication technique. It is a process of joining two similar
or dissimilar metals by the application of heat, with or without the application of pressure
and with or without the use of filler metal. The heat may be obtained from blacksmith’s
hearth, electric arc, electric resistance or chemical reaction. The joint obtained by this process
is strong and permanent in nature. The weld strength and quality are determined by the
resultant heat affected zone, recrystallised zone, grain size in the weld pool area, residual
stress and its distribution. A welded joint is shown in Fig. 10.1.

Fig. 10.1

10.2 IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN WELDING

1. Autogeneous Welding: The process of joining similar metals by melting the edges
together, without the addition of the filler metal is known as autogeneous welding.
Resistance welding and solid-phase welding are the best examples of autogeneous
welded joints.

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2. Homogeneous Welding: The process of joining similar metal with the help of the
filler material of the same metal is known as homogenous welding, for example, arc
welding, gas welding and thermit welding.
3. Heterogeneous Welding: The process of joining dissimilar metals using filler rod is
known as heterogeneous welding. The filler rod material is such that its melting
point is less than the parent materials. Soldering and brazing produce heterogeneous
welded joints.
Applications: The welding is commonly used in the fabrication (such as pressure vessels,
steel structure), automobiles, aircrafts, ship building, electric equipment, machinery and
house hold appliances, etc.

10.3 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

In modern industries, more than forty types of welding and brazing processes and several
soldering methods are employed.
The various joining processes according to American Welding Society are classified as
follows:

The choice of a particular joining process is based upon several factors such as its
application, joint design, the materials involved and the dimensions of the parts to be jointed.
Factors like equipment involved and skill of the operators and cost may also control the
choice of the joint.
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In general, all these welding processes may be classified according to the nature of
source of heat employed for heating the joint and application of pressure. The classification
is not exclusive of each other. Yet the methods of welding may be divided into two broad
groups

10.3.1 Fusion Welding Processes

Fusion Welding is melting together of joining materials by means of heat. The thermal
energy is supplied by chemical or electrical means. Metal called filler metal may be added
to the joint by melting together with the base metal. Some methods may not use the filler
metal. The fusion welding methods include gas welding or oxyfuel, arc welding, electron
beam and laser beam welding.

10.3.2 Pressure Welding Processes

In these processes the parts are heated to plastic state but not melted . Then the parts are
pressed together with some external pressure to fuse with each other to form a permanent
joint. Forge welding, pressure welding and friction welding are examples.

10.4 GAS WELDING

Gas welding is a fusion-welding processes. It usually refers to a group of welding processes,
in which gas is the heat source. It is done by burning the fuel gas with oxygen such that a
high temperature flame is produced. The flame thus produced is directed towards the
intented joint. The high temperature flame fuses the edges of the pieces of metal being
jointed. Heat is applied till the molten pool mix together. Once the flame is removed the
molten metal pool finally solidifies to form the joint. The type of design of joint determines
weather a filler should be used to complete the welding. This process of welding is suitable
for joining thin metal sheets and plates having thickness of 2 mm to 50 mm. The filler
metal is used for welding the sheet above 1.5 mm thickness. Usually no filler metal is

Fig. 10.2 Scheme of gas welding system

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required for welding of sheet below 1.5 mm thickness. Essential elements of gas welding
setup are shown in Fig 10.2.
Various gas combination such as oxygen-hydrogen, oxygen-acetylene and air-acetylene
gas may be used for producing a high temperature flame for welding the metal parts. The
oxygen-acetylene gas combination is widely used because it produces very high temperature
flame. The flame temperature normally obtained with 2½ parts oxygen to one part of
acetylene is about 3200°C. Such oxygen-acetylene flame is shown in Fig. 10.3.

Fig. 10.3 Typical oxyacetylene flame and the associated

temperature distribution
Oxygen and acetylene are available commercially and supplied in compressed state in
separate cylinders. Acetylene is mixed with acetone and stored in pores of calcium silicate
in the cylinder. See Fig. 10.2 for other details and pressure in both cylinders.

10.4.1 Oxyfuel Welding

In oxyfuel welding acetylene gas is made to react with oxygen. The two gases are stored in
two different cylinders. The oxygen cylinder is smaller in diameter but of the same height
as acetylene cylinders. The gases through rubber pipes (hoses) are drawn through nozzle
at a sufficient distance away from the cylinders. The hoses are joined to a single nozzle
from which the mixture issues. The mixture can be ignited to produce a flame. The acetylene
 WELDING 191
first reacts with O2 to form carbon monoxide and H2 which further react with O2 to produce
CO2 and water vapour. In this process of burning of acetylene (C2H2) flame appears to be
issued from the nozzle and heat is generated. When flame is allowed to play upon the
metal the heat of flame is transferred to the metal. The temperature of the flame may be up
to 3200-3300°C.
Fig. 10.4 shows the process of welding is accomplished in five steps. First, the cylinder
pressure is released to a working-line pressure by means of regulators. The gases are
transported, by means of hoses to the welding torch. For identification purposes the colour
of hoses used for transporting oxygen and acetylene gas are kept different—black for oxygen
and red for acetylene. These gases are mixed in the mixing chamber of the torch and then
this mixture is ejected into the atmosphere. All that is needed now is to ignite this mixture
by a spark. When the spark is applied the flame results. The flame has clearly different
zones due to chemical reactions. The exothermic reactions of oxidizing acetylene take place
in two stages.

Fig. 10.4 Oxy-Acetylene Welding

C2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + 448 kJ/mol

4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + 812 kJ/mol
A typical flame is shown in Fig. 10.5. Flame is made up of three distinguishable cones.
The temperatures are as shown.

Fig. 10.5 Oxyacetylene flame

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Three different types of flames can be obtained by varying the ratio of acetylene and
oxygen-gases.
1. Carburizing Flame: This flame is also known as reducing flame. Carburizing
flame is obtained by burning excess of acetylene gas. Its appearance is as shown in
Fig. 10.6. The excess fuel decomposes into carbon and hydrogen, and the flame
temperature is also not high (about 3100°C). It has three zones:
(a) Inner cone, intense white
(b) Intermediate cone—whitish or colourless.
(c) Outer cone of bluish colour
This may be used to advantage in welding a nickel-copper alloy, high-carbon steel,
for hardfacing operations, some alloy steel, cemented carbides and many of the non-
ferrous metals. It is also used in silver-brazing and soldering operations.

Fig. 10.6 Carburising flame or reducing flame

2. Neutral Flame: Neutral flame is obtained by supplying equal proportions of oxygen

and acetylene i.e ratio of oxygen and acetylene is about 1 : 1, all reactions are carried
to completion and a neutral flame is produced. Its temperature is about 3340°C.
The neutral flame consists of two visible zones, inner cone and outer envelope. The
inner cone is light blue in colour whereas outer envelope is of bluish colour as shown
in Fig. 10.7. The intermediate zone is almost colourless.

Fig. 10.7 Neutral flame

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Most welding is done with a neutral flame since it will have the least chemical effect
on the heated parent metals. It has wider applications in gas welding and is used in
the welding of mild steel, alloy steel, grey cast iron, copper and aluminium, etc. It is
also used for cutting of plates.
3. Oxidizing Flame: Supplying excess of oxygen, at a higher ratio such as 1.75:1 will
produce an oxidizing flame which is hotter than the neutral flame but similar in
appearance, except that the inner cone is less luminous and shorter as shown in
Fig. 10.8. It produces a temperature of 3340°C, with intermediate and outer zones
appearing orange to purple.

Fig. 10.8 Oxidising flame

This type of flame is used as a cutting flame or preheating flame and for welding of
copper and copper alloys, zinc and zinc alloys, brass and bronze, etc.

10.4.2 Pressure Gas Welding (PGW)

PGW is a method of gas welding in which no filler rod is used. Instead two surfaces to be
jointed are heated by gas flame under pressure. The method is effective for joining pipes
and small rails.

10.5 GAS WELDING TECHNIQUES

The various types of welding techniques are described here:

10.5.1 Leftward or Forward Technique

In this process, the welding torch is held in the right hand of the operator at an angle of 20°
to 30° from vertical plane. The welding (filler) rod is held in the left hand of the operator at
50° to 60° from vertical. The operator starts welding at the right hand side of the seam,
moving towards the left. The flame is given circular, rational or side to side motion to obtain
uniform fusion throughout the joint. This technique is more efficient where thickness of
the plates is more than 3 mm. Since the enveloping flame preheats the joint [see Fig (10.9a)].

10.5.2 Rightward Technique

In this process, the welding torch is held in the right hand and the welding rod in the left
hand of the operator. The welding torch is moved from left to right. The welding rod is
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given circular motion while the welding torch moves in straight line. This technique of the
welding is used where the thickness of the plates is more than 6 mm. In the process the
outer envelop of the flame covers the fresh welded joint [see Fig (10.9b)].

Torch Torch
Direction of welding Direction of welding
Filler Rod Filler Rod
40–50°
30–40° 60–70° 45º– 50°

(a) Leftward welding Technique (b) Rightward welding Technique

Fig. 10.9 Welding technique

10.5.3 Vertical Welding

This process is used when plates are lying in the vertical position. In this process, welding
starts at the bottom of the welded joint and proceeds upwards. The welding torch is held in
the right hand of the operator and welding rod in the left hand and flame follows the filler
rod in forward mode. This welding is used where the thickness of the plates is more than 6
mm but two operators are recommended if thickness is greater than 4.5 mm. It does not
require plate edge preparation upto about 16 mm.

10.5.4 Over Head Welding

In this process, the welding torch is held at the right angles to the plates. The molten metal
is controlled by the flame. In this process, correct degree of penetration is difficult as the
welding operation is performed overhead.
Filler metals compatible with those to be welded are available in form of rods or wire,
both base and coated with flux. The flux generates gaseous shield around weld and dissolves
oxides and other impurities from base metal. The flux thus forms slag and floats on top and
continues to protect molten metal from oxidation. Steel is by far the commonest material
which is welded. Aluminium, copper and their alloys, bronzes and cast iron are other
materials welded commonly. Commercial grade copper containing cuprous oxide produces
water in welding reactions. The water vapour may cause the weld to crack. Welding grade
copper, free from cuprous oxide is available for welding.
In case of welding of brass and bronze the vapours of water create problem by creating
blow holes. An oxidizing flame converts Zn into oxide which forms a layer and protects rest
of the Zn from action of flame. For welding cast iron molten metal filler rod is recommended
along with refined powdered borax as flux. It will produce weld which is machinable. If
 WELDING 195
iron and steel are used as filler metal, the weld bead is so hard that it cannot be machined.
Preheating of the joint is also recommended.

10.6 ARC WELDING

An electric arc is struck between an electrode and workpiece which produces a temperature
close to 6000°C, enough to cause the metal to melt. The electrode is used as the filler metal.
The arc welding is a fusion welding process in which an electric arc is produced between
two electrodes or between an electrode and the work piece carrying high current. The
electric arc is produced when two poles (electrodes or workpiece and electrode as the case
may be) of an open electric circuit are brought in contact for a moment and then separated
by a small distance, such that the arc is maintained. The gap between the electrodes is kept
such that there is sufficient voltage difference between the two to maintain the flow of
current. The joint produced by an arc welding is stronger as compared to the other welding
processes because of fast heating due to higher temperatures.
The metal of the workpiece to be joined is called base metal or parent metal, and that
provided by the electrode as filter metal. The flow of current between the electrode and the
work piece is ionized gas called plasma. All arc welding processes employ the same basic
circuit as shown in Fig. 10.10. If DC is used and the work is made negative and the electrode
is positive, it is called reverse polarity. Shielded electrodes may change the arc conditions,
however, and produce better result, when used in the reverse polarity AC is a popular
alternative to the DC source.
As the electrode melts, the arc length and the electric resistance of the arc path varies.
To maintain a stable arc and satisfactory welding conditions, the electrode must be moved
towards the work at a controlled rate. Manual arc welding is always performed with shielded
electrode.
A protective shield must be provided for the arc and molten-weld pool. Arc shielding is
accomplished in various other ways. One method is to provide a coating on the electrode
that vaporizes by the heat of the arc and provides a gaseous shield as shown in Fig. 10.10.
Basically shielding not only provides protection from atmosphere for the molten metal,
but it also affects the stability and metal transfer characteristics of the arc.
Both consumable and non-consumable electrodes are used in arc welding. Arc welding
using coated consumable electrodes is dominantly used with the consumable electrodes of
the filler metal provided by the metallic wire or rod that is fed into arc. It carries the welding
current and supplies the necessary filler metal to the joint.
Manual metal arc welding is the most common welding process. About 50% of welding
in the world is done by this process. The electrode rod which consumes and acts as filler
materials is flux coated. This rod is held in electrode holder at the end of a length of cable.
The other end of cable is connected to power source which may be an ac transformer or dc
generator. The other terminal of power source is connected to workpiece via earth return or
ground cable to complete the circuit when electrode touches the workpiece. [Fig. 10.10(b)]
Electrodes of core wire diameter of 2.4 mm to 10 mm and are 300-450 mm long. The
deposition rate of weld metal, which governs the overall rate of welding increases with
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current and has a maximum value for each diameter and length of electrode. Electrode
coating is damaged if current limit is exceeded. Current varies from 60 A for smallest electrode
to 450A for largest. Maximum current is used only when flat plates are welded. For vertical
and overhead welding electrode diameter upto 5 mm and current upto 170 A are used.
Relatively low voltage sources (15 V to 45 V) are used.
An intense arc and filler metal is not enough to make a satisfactory weld. Metals at
high temperatures react chemically with oxygen and nitrogen, the main constituents of
air. The oxides and nitrides that form can change the physical properties of the weld.

(a) Schematic of shielded arc welding

(b) Welding circuit

Fig. 10.10
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Therefore the molten weld pool is to be protected by a shield around it. The shield can be
provided in various ways (for example from a coated electrode, as mentioned earlier).
Covering the arc with inert gases is another way of protecting the arc from N2 and O2.
The arc welding processes most widely used are shielded metal arc welding, flux-cored
welding, gas metal-arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, plasma arc welding, submerged-
arc welding, electric slag welding and stud-arc welding.
The arc energy or heat developed by arc is calculated from
H = VIT
where H is heat in J, V ios arc voltage in V, I is arc current in A and T is time in seconds.
Heat input per unit length of weld
H VI
h= = where S is speed with which arc travels in mm/s.
S S

10.7 TYPES OF ARC WELDING

Two common but advanced types of arc welding are Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW),
often called Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding, and Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW),
often called Metal Inert Gas (MIG). A lot of TIG and MIG equipment are used in many
workshops and factories in the world. In spite of its high efficiency in welding most metals,
there are some difficulties associated with it during welding. The source of these difficulties
is attributed to the fact that most of the old generation of TIG and MIG equipments are
manual or semi-automatic. Therefore, they are unable to provide a uniform heat input
along the welded line. Accordingly reflection on the automation of this equipment is
necessary.

Fig. 10.11 (a) Metal inert gas welding

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Fig. 10.11 (b) Setup of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG)

10.7.1 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

MIG welding, uses an electrode wire (0.6–1.6 mm diameter) acting as consumable filler rod
but no flux. Instead an inert gas is issued continuously from a tube surrounding the wire
electrode. The inert gas normally is argon or a mixture of argon and helium carried from
pressurized tank to the gun nozzle and its flow and feed of filler wire are controlled from
welding gun. The process renders itself well to automation in which job is placed on a table
which reciprocates or rotates to create a linear or circular joint. (Fig. 10.11). There is no
slag to remove and heat input is low resulting in less distortion.
This technique is applicable to all situations and metals where manual arc welding is
used. It is more suitable to non ferrous (some) alloys and for stainless steel and nickel
alloys.

10.7.2 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding

TIG welding makes use of non-consumable electrode made of tungsten. Since the electrode
is not consumed, the arc is very steady and can be maintained in direction. The electrode
protrudes out of a welding torch that can be held in hand and through the space surrounding
the electrode inert gas is continuously fed under pressure on the arc. The filler rod may or
may not be used. It is used if plates to be joined are thick while thin plates can be welded
without filler rod. The method is adaptable to automation (Fig. 10.12). In TIG welding, the
welder holds the welding rod in one hand and an electric torch in the other. The torch is
used simultaneously to melt the rod and the workpiece. Instead of using gas flux surrounding
the rod, TIG and MIG protect the initial weld from the environment by blowing inert gas
onto the weld.
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Fig. 10.12 Tungsten inert gas welding

The TIG welding process joins metals by heating them with a tungsten electrode, which
should not become part of the completed weld. Filler metal is mainly used with thick metals
and argon inert gas or inert gas mixtures are used for shielding. The consumable are:
tungsten electrode, filler metal and shielding gas. The method is adaptable to automation.
The metals that can be welded are C-steel, stainless steel, refractory metals and alloys of
Al, Cu and Mg.
In the TIG process a torch is used to control the position of the electrode, to transfer
current to the arc and to direct the flow of the shielding gas. The tungsten is placed in
contact with the workpiece; when the tungsten is lifted from the workpiece an arc is
established. Tungsten is a rare metallic element with an extremely high melting point,
3410°C.

10.7.3 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

In SAW the consumable uncoated electrode is used for generating arc as well as for filling
the joint. The flux is fed from a separate tube in granular form and is laid on the joint like
a thick cover. The process is typically mechanised in which wire electrode continuously
feeds through a tube and moves along the seam. The flux is fed through a tube ahead of
the electrode. The flux is conducting and allows the arc to pass to metal from electrode. The
method is applicable to long joints in thicker plates of carbon or low alloy steels with high
speed with a restriction of welding in horizontal plane. Since flux acts as thermal insulator,
heat loss is much smaller and helps reach higher welding speed. Less deep edges are required
since heat can reach the depth. This reduces cost of edge preparation.
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10.7.4 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Electrically charged gas capable of conducting electrical current is known as plasma. The
plasma is used to conduct the arc from non-consumable electrode to workpiece in Plasma
Arc Welding (PAW). The process is particularly good for autogeneous weld both in thin
and thick plates. Plasma stream is very thin and can be directed into the gap between
plates. Plasma is heated to a temperature of 30,000°C.

10.7.5 Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)

In Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW) the arc is struck between two non-consumable
electrodes through which hydrogen gas is allowed to pass. The arc dissociates hydrogen
molecules into atoms which immediately react with oxygen and produce intense heat to
cause the melting of the workpiece in the region of joint. The filler rod is used. The burning
hydrogen provides the shield to the molten metal (Fig 10.13).

Fig. 10.13 Atomic hydrogen welding

10.7.6 Stud Arc Welding (SW)

SW is used to weld studs, bolts, pins and other fasteners to a metal surface. The fastener to
be welded is kept under pressure of a spring and arc is struck between the fastener and the
surface.

10.8 RESISTANCE WELDING

The surfaces required to be welded are kept under pressure and current is passed across
the thickness. Heat is generated in the contact area due to resistance and two pieces weld
together where molten material solidifies. No filler rod is required nor flux is needed. Because
the welding occurs in the region which is already covered by contacting surfaces. Oxygen
does not have access and oxidation is not problem. Three types of lap joints are created by
spot (RSW), seam (RSEW) and projection welding (RPW). Butt welds are created by flash
and upset welding (Fig. 10.14 and 10.15):
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Fig. 10.14 Resistance welding

In resistance welding, both heat and pressure are used to induce coalescence. Basically,
it is a group of welding processes in which welding heat is obtained from flow of current
through the localized area, which is pressed by the electrodes. The current is passed for a
small duration. Thus resistance welding is cyclic in nature. The amount of heat generated
is related to the magnitude of the electric current, the resistance of the current conducting
path, and the time the current is allowed to flow. This process uses high current but low
voltage (6-10 volts). The control of current and pressure are critical in resistance welding.
Resistance welding is a very rapid and economical process. It is extremely suited to
automated manufacturing. Its major applications are in automobile industries and in mass
production, such as joining pieces of sheet metal, bars and wires, etc. No flux or filler metal
is required. The tight contact maintained between the pieces excludes air and eliminates
the need for shielding gas.
The amount of heat input can be determined by the relationship.
H = I2RT
where H = heat produced in joules
I = current in amperes
R = electric resistance in ohms
T = time of current flow in second
It is important to note that the workpieces actually form part of the electrical circuit, as
shown in Fig. 10.15, and that the total resistance between the electrodes consists of three
component.
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Fig. 10.15 The fundamental resistance-welding circuit

(a) Contact resistance between the electrodes and the work.

(b) Resistance of the work-pieces.
(c) Resistance between the surface to be joined. Since the temperature of electrodes is
raised they may be softened and damaged during pressing. They need to be cooled
by some means. Various arrangements are available commercially.

Resistance welding methods are economical and much more conveniently adaptable for
mass production and automation, particularly for thin sheets.
RSW Fig. 10.14(a), is used for joining sheet metal (between 0.6 to 3 mm thick), joints
are not sealed, top surface has alternate dimples hence surface is not good. Car body is
example and many low carbon steel components for cabinets and general sheet work are
made through this process. RSEW Fig. 10.14(b) is different than RSW in that spots are in
continuation touching each other so that joint may be sealed. Pipes are butt welded by this
technique. Refrigeration evaporators and condensers and many other sheet metal products
are example. This process produces long seams much faster than spot welding. Machines
are heavier and costlier than those for spot welding. RPW can produce welds at two or more
spots simultaneously by a single pair of electrodes (Fig. 10.14(c). Three projections welded
simultaneously give the best results. Though applications with five projections being welded
simultaneously are common, the results are not good for more then three projections. It
requires low pressure and low current extending life of electrodes. It is particularly good for
zinc coated steel sheets.
In Flash Welding (FW) two parts to be welded are rigidly held in jaws that carry the
current. An arc is struck between the parts by keeping them at a small distance for a while
and when they begin melting two are pressed together, current is cut off and molten metal
solidifies to create the joint. The result of pressing is that molten metal and oxides formed
squeeze out and make a flash or upset around the joint. This flash may be removed. Typical
examples are continuous welded railway tracks and motor car wheel rims.
 WELDING 203

Fig. 10.16 Butt welding by electrical resistance

If two ends of bars are brought in contact under moderate force and current passed,
butt joint is created. No visible melting occurs but slight upsetting (increase in dimension)
results.
Upset Welding (UW) is slight variation on FW in that the parts are kept under heavy
pressure so that arcing does not occur. The melting takes place and ends are upset because
of pressure.

10.9 TYPES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

There are different types of resistance welding process as follows:
1. Spot welding
2. Seam welding
3. Butt welding
4. Projection welding
5. Upset welding
6. Percussion welding
7. Flash welding
8. High frequency welding
In this section only spot welding and seam welding are discussed.

10.9.1 Spot Welding

Spot welding is the simplest and most commonly employed resistance welding. This process
of welding come into use in 1900-05. It is an excellent method of joining plates or sheet
metal. Here parts are placed in over-lapping positions between two water cooled (copper)
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electrodes, which have reduced areas at the tips to produce weld as shown in Fig. 10.14(a).
The figure shows a typical arrangement in which two pencil shaped electrodes are positioned
on either side the spot to be welded. The bottom electrode is fixed whereas the top one is
movable. The movable electrode exerts pressure on the work and holds it tight in the position.
Then a high current at a low voltage is caused to flow through the water cooled electrodes,
for a small time. The resistance causes the temperature to be raised rapidly at a point of
contact between two work pieces. When the metal becomes plastic, the pressure forces the
two metals together to complete the weld. The electrodes then open and work is removed.
Since no external material is added to the weld, the basic metallurgical composition of the
weld remains the same as of the plates.
This process can suitably replac riveting. The application of spot welding has been
greatly extended through the use of portable spot welding gun. The majority of spot welding
is performed to join wrought iron and low carbon steel sheets. But other ductile metals and
steel sheets are also spot welded in fabrication of sheet metals structures. It is widely used
in automobile industries for fabrication of car bodies, ducting, domestic refrigerators, stoves,
cabinets and buckets, etc.

Procedure
1. The job should be clean. It should be free from grease, dirt, paint, scale, oxide, etc.
2. Clean the electrode tip surface. Very fine emery cloth may be used for routine cleaning.
3. Water is kept running through the electrodes in order to cool the weld and avoid the
electrodes from getting overheated.
4. Proper welding current is set on the current selector switch.
5. Proper time is set on timer.
6. Electrodes are brought together against the overlapping workpices and pressure is
applied so that the surfaces of the two workpieces come in physical contact with each
other.
7. Welding current is switched on.
8. As the current passes small area where the workpieces are in contact is heated and
spot weld takes place. The temperature of this weld zone is approximately 815°C to
930°C.
9. After the welding takes place, the welding current is cut off. Extra electrode force is
then applied until the metal cools down and gains strength.
10. After that, electrode pressure is released to move the spot welded workpieces.
Spot welding offers advantages of low cost higher productivity and does not require
high level skill. It could be automatic or semiautomatic and requires no edge preparation.
The process is used in automobile and aircraft industries, for making furniture and
containers. It is applicable to carbon steel, high speed steel, stainless steel, Al, Cu, Ni and
Ni alloys.
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10.9.2 Seam Welding

Seam welding is a continuous type of spot welding, producing a series of overlapping spot
welds at high speed. The basic equipment is the same as for spot welding, except that the
electrodes are now in the form of rotating disks as shown in Fig. 10.14(b). The bottom roller
is fixed and the top is movable and power driven. The variation in weld can be produced by
switching the current off and on in varying ratio to vary between 3000-10,000A.
Seam welding can be used to produce highly efficient water and gas tight joints. Seam
welding is used for welding of gasoline tanks, boilers, automobile mufflers, stove pipes and
pressure vessels. Stainless steels, aluminium and its alloys, nickel and its alloys and
magnesium alloys, etc. can be welded by this process.
Procedure
1. The workpieces to be seam welded are cleaned, overlapped suitably and placed
between the two circular electrodes which clamps the workpieces together.
2. Cooling of electrodes is started. The electrodes are cooled either by water spray or by
passing refrigerant fluid through electrodes.
3. By switching on the current through electrode drive, they begin to rotate and the
workpieces steadily move forward.
4. If the current is put off and on quickly, a continuous fusion zone made up of
overlapping nuggets is obtained.
5. Individual spot welds are obtained by constant and regularly timed interruption of
the welding current, and spot weld is produced.

10.10 SOLID STATE WELDING

This is the process in which welding is performed without application of heat from external
source.
One shaft is rotated such that its end rubs against the end of another shaft held rigidly
or against the plate. Due to rubbing at high speed enough heat is generated to cause
melting of two surfaces. The rotation is stopped and shaft pressed against the other part
under pressure. The common areas are upset and a permanent joint develops. The method
is known as friction welding (FW).
A plate supported over a rigid base has another plate placed close to it at small inclination.
The other plate carries a layer of explosive material which when detonated strikes against
the plate on heavy base with large force but making gradual contact due to inclination.
Under heavy force of explosion the two plates develop adhesion in which irregularities on
two surfaces lock in and become permanently bonded. Cladding is a process in which thin
sheets are bonded on surface of other plates. This process is called explosion welding (EXW).
Ultrasonic welding (USW) is a process in which thin sheets are clamped under heavy
pressure. One of the sheets is subjected to ultrasonic disturbance resulting in gradual joining
of surfaces. The joint is made in the same way as in RSW or RSEW.
 206 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

10.11 ELECTRON BEAM AND LASER BEAM WELDING

Concentrated and well collimated electron beam or laser beam falls upon the region of weld
and melts the zone which can create the joint after beam is switched off.
The distortion in the weld region is largely restricted because a limited volume of material
is heated and melts. Electronic components (which are small in size) are often welded by
LBW. Filaments in vacuum tubes are also welded by this method.
EBW on the other hand can be used on large workpiece, but due to the possibility of
scattering of electrons while passing through air, electron beam must be used in vacuum.
If both the EB source and workpieces are in vacuum chamber the process is high vacuum
EBW. In some cases the work pieces are kept in partially evacuated chamber and process is
called partial vacuum EBW. In non-vacuum EBW the workpieces are at atmospheric
pressure. While EBW offers the advantage of high speed, automation and narrow HAZ,
the cost is very high for evacuation and related equipment and also due to radiation possibility
requiring protection of operator.

10.12 BRAZING AND SOLDERING

In brazing and soldering the parent metals develop bonds with the filler metal on two
sides. The parent metals do not melt but the filler metal melts. It means that filler metal will
have melting point much lower than that of parent metals. Normally filler metals have
melting point of 450ºC. Solders melt below this temperature. It is, however, conceivable
that molten filler metal will dissolve small amount of parent metals.
Molten metal has the property of flowing into small space between parent metal and
also into small crevices. This is due to capillary effect that the liquid metal is drawn into
thin gaps. Hence the joints produced by brazing are much smoother and have good
appearance. Lap joints and slipover connections between tubes or pipes are completely
filled in brazed jointing.
Filler metal may be used in form of a wire or rod as in welding. But it is possible to place
filler metal shaped in form of gap between the parent metal and then heated. Heating for
brazing can be done by torch, in furnace, by resistance or induction. Filler metal could be
alloy of copper, nickel or silver and brazing process is known after these elements. Cu-Zn
alloy with Cu—66% and Zn—34% is the most common alloy used for brazing iron, mild
steel and copper. For brazing brass, Cu-Zn alloy with reduced percentage of Cu is used.
Silver based filler metal is used for soldering silver. The filler metal is known as spelter. In
yet another method known as dip brazing the brazing alloy is melted in a bath in which
parent metals, preheated to melt temperature of spelter and put together in form of joint
are dipped in the bath.
Brazing is applicable to C.I., steels, galvanized steel, Al, Cu, Mg, Ni and their alloys,
stainless and heat resisting steels, Ti, Zr, ceramics and refractory metals.
 WELDING 207
Flux is always used in all brazing operations and it is borax in powder or solution form.
It is always applied on surfaces to be joined by brazing before heating. In some cases
spelter in wire form carries flux in its core. Spelter in form of granules or preform (shape of
joint) is used in furnace heating. Flux in form of solution is applied on the surface like a
paint in dip brazing or a thick layer of borax is melted and made to float on top of molten
brazing alloy particularly when stainless steel is brazed.
Furnace brazing has the advantage that several parts can be placed in the furnace at
the same time, and hence can be adopted to production on mass scale.
In both the processes of soldering and brazing the surfaces where joint is to be made
must be thoroughly cleaned by filing, scraping or polishing. No traces of grease should be
left on the surfaces and if necessary the parent metal may be acid cleaned by dipping into
weak acid solution.
While brazing process requires heating above 600°C soldering uses filler which melts
below 450°C. The filler for soldering is known as solder and is alloy of Sn and Pb. In fine
solder it is 60% Sn while in coarse variety Sn and Pb are equal. Materials like C.I. mild
steel, wrought iron, galvanized steel, brass, copper, Zn, Sn can be soldered. Flux in each
case may be different but zinc chloride and weak hydrochloric acid are used in most of the
metals except for Cu, Sn, Pb and their alloys. Now solders as alloys of Sn, Ag, Sb and Cu
have been developed and alloys of Pb are not used for they are polluting.
The soldered joints are used in food handling equipment, domestic utensils, tin plated
cans, heat exchangers and electronic assemblies. Teri-antimony solder is used for application
at temperatures above 100ºC, for joining stainless steel and refrigeration work. Tin-silver
alloy is used for food applications and instrumentation work.
In soldering base metal is heated separately by a torch or solder iron. Solder iron picks
up solder which either carries flux in its core or dipped in flux. The molten drop of solder
sticking to the tip of solder iron and then it is deposited where joint is required. The parent
metals may be heated in other ways like in brazing.
It is apparent from the description that soldered joint will be weaker than brazed joint
which in turn is weaker than welded joint. The soldering is used for proofing the leak or
providing a good electrical contact between jointed parts.

10.13 TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS AND WELDS

The common welded joint types are shown in Fig. 10.17 while the types of weld are shown
in Fig. 10.18. Five relative orientation of joining plates are identified:
Flat in which joint and melt are in horizontal plane is the most convenient position. In
other positions flow of metal is affected by gravity. Vertical and overhead weldings are
referred to as ‘out of position’ welding. Four weld types are identified in Fig. 10.18. Plug,
slot and tack welds can carry only small load.
 208 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

Fig. 10.17 Types of welded joints

Fig. 10.18 Types of welds

10.14 DEFECTS IN WELDS

Though welding is a vast branch of engineering encompassing Material Science to design
and manufacturing, emphasis here will be placed only upon such aspects which are related
with materials. The practice of welding described earlier is largely a function of design. The
two can help each other if properly looked into yet the defects must be taken care of or
known to be existing. So that designer can adopt a better safety factor and practice may be
made proper to lessen their detrimental effects. Also it will be worthwhile to examine if
there exist methods that can reduce the effects of defects in a postweld treatment.
 WELDING 209
A typical fusion weld joint is shown in Fig. 10.19. Three zones can be identified:
1. The base metal.
2. The heat affected zone (HAZ).
3. The filled in weld mixed with the base metal called the weld metal.
The nature of the metal to be jointed, the process of welding, filler metal if used and
other process variables strongly affect the metallurgy and properties of HAZ and weld
metal. The properties will vary between autogeneous and hetrogeneous joints.

10.15 SOLIDIFICATION OF THE WELD METAL

After applying heat and introducing filler metal, if any, into the weld area, the molten weld
joint is allowed to cool to ambient temperature. The solidification process is similar to that
in casting and begins with the formation of (dendritic) grains. These grains are relatively
long and form parallel to the heat flow. Because metals are much better heat conductors
than the surrounding air, the grains lie parallel to the two plates being welded [Fig. 10.20(a)].
The grains in shallow weld are shown in Fig. 10.20(b). Grain structure and size depend on
the specific alloy, the welding process, and the filler metal used.

Fig. 10.19 A typical fusion weld zone in gas and arc welding
 210 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

The weld metal is basically a cast structure and, because it has cooled slowly, it generally
has coarse grains. Consequently, this structure has generally low strength, toughness,
and ductility. However, the proper selection of filler-metal composition or post weld heat
treatments can improve the joint’s mechanical properties. Cooling rates may be controlled
and reduced by preheating the general weld area prior to welding. Preheating is particularly
important for metals with high thermal conductivity, such as aluminium and copper;
otherwise, the heat during welding rapidly dissipates.

Fig. 10.20 Weld metal grain structure (a) Deep weld (b) Shallow weld

10.16 HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE

The Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) is within the base metal itself and adjacent to weld. It has
a microstructure different than that of the base metal because it has been subjected to
elevated temperatures during welding.
The properties and microstructure of the HAZ depend on (a) the rate of heat input and
cooling; and (b) the temperature to which this zone was raised. The HAZ and the
corresponding phase diagram for 0.3 per cent carbon steel are shown in Fig. 10.21. In
addition to metallurgical factors (such as original grain size, grain orientation, and degree
of prior cold work), the specific heat and thermal conductivity of the metals influence the
HAZ’s size and characteristics.

Fig. 10.21 Temperature distribution in HAZ and corresponding

phase diagram in 0.3% steel
 WELDING 211
The strength and hardness of the heat-affected zone depend partly on how the original
strength and hardness of the particular alloy was developed prior to welding. They may
have been developed by cold working, or by various heat treatments. Of these strengthening
methods, the simplest to analyze is base metal that has been cold worked.
The heat applied during welding recrystalizes the elongated grains of cold worked
base metal. Grains away from weld metal will crystallize into fine size. However, the grains
close to weld metal, having been subjected to higher temperature for a longer time will
grow, resulting in softer metal which is less strong. The joint will thus be weakest in HAZ.
Because of locked in stresses due to unequal cooling rates, HAZ is more susceptible to
corrosion.

10.17 WELD QUALITY

Because of the conditions obtaining in welding process the weld is likely to develop many
defects. These are described below.
1. Porosity: The gases are released during melting of the weld region and trapped
during solidification. Some chemical reaction during welding may also release gases
which can be trapped. These cause porosity which is spherical in shape or elongated
pocket. The distribution of porosity in HAZ is random. Occurrence of porosity can be
reduced greatly by following:
• Proper electrodes and filler metal selection.
• Preheating the weld area or inputting heat at faster rate.
• Cleaning and preventing contaminants from entering weld zone.
• Slowing the welding speed to allow the gas to escape.
2. Slag Inclusion: Oxides, fluxes and electrode coating materials form slag and are
trapped in the weld zone. If shielding is not effective then contamination from
environment may also contribute to inclusions. If proper technique is used then the
molten slag will float on the surface of the molten metal in the weld zone and slag
inclusion may be prevented. Further following steps must be ensured:
• Weld bead surface is to be cleaned before depositing the next layer.
• Adequate shielding gas to be provided.
• Sufficient space must be available for proper manipulation of the puddle of the
molten weld metal.
3. Incomplete Fusion and Penetration: Incomplete fusion produces poor weld bead
as shown in Fig. 10.22. Apparently the strength is reduced. Incomplete penetration
occurs when the depth of the welded joint is insufficient. Following steps may be
taken to avoid incomplete penetration:
• Temperature of the base metal is raised.
• Weld area prior to welding is properly cleaned.
 212 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

• Joint design and type of electrode may be properly modified.

• Adequate shielding gas may be made available.
• Better penetration occurs if heat input is increased.
• Travel speed during welding is low.
• The surface to be joined must be fitted properly.

Fig. 10.22 Incomplete penetration

10.18 WELD PROFILE

Weld profile is important not only because of its effects on the strength and appearance of
the weld, but also because it can indicate incomplete fusion or the presence of slag inclusions
in multiple-layer welds. Underfilling results when the joint is not filled with the proper
amount of weld metal [Fig. 10.23 (a)]. Undercutting [Fig. 10.23 (b)] results from melting
away the base metal and subsequently generating a groove in the shape of a sharp recess
or notch. Unless it is not deep or sharp, an undercut can act as a stress raiser and reduce
the fatigue strength of the joint – and may lead to premature failure. Overlap
[Fig. 10.23 (b)] is a surface discontinuity generally caused by poor welding practice and
selection of the wrong materials. A proper weld is shown in Fig. 10.23 (c).

Fig. 10.23 Defects in welds at (a) and (b). Perfect weld at (c)
 WELDING 213

Cracks
Cracks may occur in various locations and directions in the weld area. The types of cracks
are typically longitudinal, transverse, crater, underbead, and toe cracks as illustrated in
Fig. 10.24. These cracks generally result from a combination of the following factors:
• Temperature gradients exist that cause thermal stresses in the weld zone.
• Variations in the composition of the weld zone that cause different contractions.
• Embrittlement of grain boundaries by segregation of elements, such as sulphur, to
the grain boundaries as the solid-liquid boundary moves when the weld metal begins
to solidify.
• Hydrogen embrittlement.
• Inability of the weld metal to contract during cooling – a situation similar to hot
tears that develop in castings and related to excessive restraint of the workpiece.
Some cracks develop when the joint is still hot. Such cracks are hot cracks. The cold cracks
develop when the joint has been cooled.
The cracks may be avoided with following steps.
• Change of design of the joint so that the stress due to shrinkage on cooling is
minimized.
• Change in welding process and sequence.
• Preheating of components to be welded.
• Avoiding rapid cooling of welded joint.

Fig. 10.24 Cracks in weld and welded joint

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10.19 TESTING OF WELDED JOINTS

As in all manufacturing processes, the quality of a welded joint is established by testing.
Several standard tests and test procedures have been established and are available from
several organizations.

(a) Destructive Tests

Five methods of destructively testing of welded joints are commonly used.
1. Tension Test: Longitudinal and transverse tension tests are performed on specimens
removed from actual welded joints and from the weld metal area to obtain stress-
strain curves. These curves indicate the yield strength ( σ Y ) , ultimate tensile strength
(σu ) , and ductility of the welded joint in different locations and directions, measured
in terms of percentage elongation and percentage reduction of area.
2. Tension-shear Test: The specially prepared specimens are loaded in tension causing
shearing stress in the weld (Fig. 10.25). Shearing strength is determined by dividing
the fracture load by effective area of weld. Effective area is the one over which
fracture occured.

Fig. 10.25 Tension-shear test

3. Bend Test: Several bend tests have been developed to determine the ductility and
strength of welded joints. In one test, the welded specimen is bent around a fixture
(wrap-around bend test, Fig. 10.26(a). In another test, the specimens are tested in
three point transverse bending, Fig. 10.26(b). These tests help establish the relative
ductility and strength of welded joints.
4. Impact Test: V-notch specimens are prepared such that the weld contains the notch
and tested in impact. Other impact tests include the drop-weight test in which the
energy is supplied by a falling weight.
WELDING 215

Fig. 10.26 (a) Wrap around bend test (b) Three point bend test
5. Corrosion and Creep Tests: Welded joints may be tested for corrosion and creep
resistance. Because of the difference in the composition and microstructure of the
materials in the weld zone, preferential corrosion may take place in it. Creep tests
are important in determining the behaviour of welded joints at elevated temperatures.
Determination of hardness of the weld may also be used to indicate weld strength
and microstructural changes in the weld zone.

Fig. 10.27 Testing of spot weld. (a) Tension-shear (b) Cross tension (c) Twist (d) Peel test
 216 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

6. Testing of Spot Welds: Spot welded joints are tested for weld-nugget strength using
the (a) tension shear, (b) cross-tension, (c) twist, and (d) peel tests (Fig. 10.27).
Because they are easy to perform and inexpensive, tension-shear tests are commonly
used is fabricating facilities. The cross-tension and twist tests are capable of revealing
flaws, cracks, and porosity in the weld area. The peel test is commonly used for thin
sheets. After bending and peeling tests on the joint, the shape and size of the turn-
out weld nugget is studied for defects.

(b) Non-destructive Tests

Welded structures are often tested non-destructively, particularly for critical applications
where weld failure can be catastrophic. Pressure vessels, load-bearing structural members,
and power plants are the examples. Non-destructive test techniques consist of visual,
radiographic, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, and ultrasonic testing methods.

10.20 WELDABILITY
Weldability of a metal is defined as its capacity to be welded into a specific structure that
has certain properties and characteristics and that will satisfactorily meet its service
requirements. Weldability involves a large number of variables, hence cannot to generalized.
As has been seen, for base and filler metal the characteristics – such as alloying elements,
impurities, inclusions, grain structure, and processing history – are important.
Assessment of weldability will involve a thorough knowledge of the phase diagram and
the response of the metal or alloy to elevated temperatures over a period of time. Toughness,
ductility, notch sensitivity, elastic modulus, specific heat, melting point, thermal expansion,
surface-tension characteristics of the molten metal, and corrosion also affect weldability.
Preparation of surfaces for welding is important, as are the nature and properties of
surface oxide films and adsorbed gases. The welding process employed significantly affects
the temperatures developed and their distribution in the weld zone. Other factors are
shielding gases, fluxes, moisture content of the coatings on electrodes, welding speed, welding
position, cooling rate, preheating, and post-welding techniques. Many of these factors were
referred to for control of several defects.
The following list states the general weldability of specific metals, which can vary if
special welding techniques are used:
(a) Plain-carbon steels and low alloy steels: Excellent for low-carbon steels; fair to good
for medium carbon steels; poor for high-carbon steels.
(b) High-alloy steels: Generally good under well-controlled conditions.
(c) Stainless steels: Weldable by various processes.
(d) Aluminium alloys and copper alloys: Weldable at a high rate of heat input. Alloys
containing zinc or copper generally are considered unweldable.
(e) Magnesium alloys: Weldable with the use of protective shielding gas and fluxes.
WELDING 217
( f ) Nickel alloys: Similar to that of stainless steels.
(g) Titanium alloys and tantalum: Weldable with the proper use of shielding gases.
(h) Tungsten and Molybdenum: Weldable under well-controlled conditions.
(i) Niobium: (Columbium) good.

10.21 DESIGN OF WELDED JOINTS

1. Single fillet welded lap joint should not be used without previous consent of the
authority.
2. Welded joints should be positioned in such a manner that they are subjected to
lowest possible bending stresses.
3. Attachment of parts by welding which cross or which are in the immediate vicinity
of existing main welds in pressure parts should be avoided, as far as possible.
4. Concentration of welded joints should be avoided.
5. Where a butt joint is required between plates which differ in thickness by more than
one-fourth the thickness of thinner plate or more than 3 mm, the thicker plate shall
have a tapered transition section as shown in Fig. 10.28. The transition section shall
have a minimum length of four times the offset between the butting plate edges.
7. Types of connections as shown in Fig. 10.29 are not permissible.

Fig. 10.28 Butt welding plates of Unequal Thickness

218 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

Fig. 10.29 Prohibited End Connections

10.22 ASSEMBLY OF PLATES AND FIT UP

1. In bars, jacks, clamps, tack welds are used to hold the edges to be welded in line. All
tack welding will be properly carried out in such a manner that no cracks arise in
tack weld.
2. The edges of butt joints shall be held so that the correct gap is maintained during
welding.
3. While making fillet welds, the mating surfaces should fit properly everywhere.
4. Where fillet welds are used, the lapped plates shall fit closely and be kept together
during welding.

10.23 WELDING PROCEDURE

1. All welding shall be carried out using a suitable welding sequence and in such a
manner that harmful secondary effects are avoided.
2. Each run of weld metal shall be thoroughly cleaned and all slag removed before the
next run is deposited.
3. The use of a filler material that will deposit weld metal with a composition and
structure as near as that of the material being welded is recommended.
4. In making fillet welds, the weld metal shall be deposited in such a way that adequate
penetration into the base metal at the root of the weld is ensured.
5. In fillet welding the lapped plates shall fit closely and melting of the sharp edges
shall be avoided as shown in Fig. 10.30.
6. After welding has been stopped for any reason, care shall be taken in restarting to ensure
proper fusion and penetration between the plates, the weld metal and the previously
deposited weld metal, which shall be thoroughly cleaned and freed from slag.
7. When butt joints are to be welded from one side only care shall be taken in aligning
and separating the edges to be joined, in order to ensure proper fusion and penetration
at the bottom of the joint.
8. When butt joints are to be welded from one side only, the root side of the joint shall
be subjected to close inspection, whereby a distinction is made between the
irregularities and defects as shown in Fig. 10.31.
9. It is recommended that while finishing or dressing welds it shall be ensured that
scratches arising in the finishing or dressing process run parallel with the direction
of greatest tensile stress in the weld or form an angle not exceeding 45°.
WELDING 219

Fig. 10.30 Types of Fillet Welds

Fig. 10.31 Weld Defects

220 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

QUESTIONS
1. What are different types of welding processes used in practice? Which materials can be
welded?
2. Describe gas welding process. State the gases used in the process and how they are stored.
How is a flame obtained and what chemical reactions take place?
3. Sketch how flame of gas in welding appears. Identify three types of flame, their temperatures
and applications.
4. Describe forward technique and rightward technique of gas welding.
5. What is arc welding? Describe the process and mention materials for which this technique
is used. What difficulty the process poses when welding commercial copper? Draw the
electric circuit for arc welding.
6. Differentiate between Metal Inert Gas Welding and Tungsten Inert Gas Welding. Show the
setup for Metal Inert Gas Welding. What metals can be welded with these two welding
techniques and how do they differ from conventional metal arc welding?
7. Write notes on Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW) and Plasma
Arc Welding.
8. Following figures show two welding processes. Identify the parts which are marked and
name the processes. Describe each.

Fig. 10.32

9. Describe spot welding process and different types. What application does this process find
in industry? Describe the fundamental resistance welding setup.
10. What is flash welding and what are the parts on which it is performed?
11. The figure shows a welding machine. What type of machine is it? Identify the parts marked.
What purposes are served by 5 and 6 .
WELDING 221

Fig. 10.33

12. Differentiate between Brazing and Soldering. Describe the compositions of spelter and solder.
What are different processes of brazing? For avoiding lead contamination which solders are
used?
13. Sketch the types of welded joints between two plates and types of welds. How are the welded
joints tested?
14. What is heat affected zone in a welded joint? How does it influence the strength of joint?
Show the temperature distribution in HAZ during welding.
15. What defects may occur in a weld of joint?
16. What is weldability? What are the factors that affect weldability? Comment on weldability
of following materials.
1. Low, medium and high carbon steels.
2. Al alloys containing Zn or Cu.
3. Ti and Ta alloys.
4. W and Mo.
5. Stainless steel and Ni alloys.
17. If two plates of different thickness are to be welded in a butt-joint show how ends should be
prepared.
222 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

18. Figure below shows a welding machine. Identify the machine and parts marked. Sketch
the joint created by this machine.

Fig. 10.34