GROUND WATER AND HYDRAULICS - 15CV742
Module 4
GROUND WATER EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES
Geophysical method (Surface Geophysical techniques):
Two types of geophysical methods such as,
1. Electrical resistivity method.
2. Seismic refraction method.
Electrical resistivity method:
The electrical resistivity method is based on the measurement and recording of the
charges, the mean resistivity of various soils. It is generally expressed as (ohm-cm) .It
is defined as resistivity between opposite faces of a unit cable of material.
In the wenner’s spacing the distance between any two adjacent electrodes is kept
same. This spacing is commonly designed as ‘a’ (Fig 1). However in the
Schlumberger’s spacing the distance between C1 and C2 is designed as 2L and the
potential electrodes P1 and P2 (with separation of 2l) are placed symmetric to the
centre of the profile (Fig 2) .Commonly, Wenner’s spacing is adopted in the field for
its simplicity. With this spacing, the computed resistivity values for different spacing
correspond approximately to depths equivalent to the spacing.
Generally each soil will be having its own resistance depending upon water
content, compaction and composition.
The test setup consists of four metal rods to serve as an electrode.
These are placed along a straight line at equal intervals ‘D’
A direct voltage is imposed between two outer electrodes and the
potential difference or drop is measured between inner electrodes by
potentiometer.
The mean resistance is given by,
Where,
Mean resistivity (ohm-cm)
N
Distance between electrodes (cm)
E = potential difference between outer electrodes
M
I = Current flowing between outer electrodes (volt)
R = Resistance
a
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Seismic refraction method:
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R
Seismic refraction method is used in the ground water investigation.
In the Seismic refraction method, Shock waves are artificially produced
in the ground by exploding the charge of an explosive at or close to the
surface.
The shock waves as they travel through the ground are picked up by a
number of vibration detectors (geophones) located on the ground surface
at a known distance from the point of explosion and recorded.
Thus the time interval between the instant of explosion and the arrival of
the first vibration impulse at each detector is measured to a fraction of a
thousand of seconds.
Alternatively, shock waves may be created by a hammer blow on the
ground surface.
The direct or primary waves which travel directly from the point of the
explosion along the ground surface arrive first at the detector irrespective
of their distance.
If the sub soil comprise of 2 or more different layer, the primary wave
travel downward to the lower layers and get refracted at the interface and
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this waves are termed as refracted waves.
M
TIME–TRAVEL CURVE (Time verses distance from source to geophones)
a
ith
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R
T(s) – Time in mille second
D (m) – Distance in meter
BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
The Geophysical techniques inside a drilled hole include
(i) Electric logging – Electrical resistivity and spontaneous potential
(ii) Induction logging
(iii) Radioactive logging
(iv) Sonic logging
(v) Fluid logging
1. ELECTRIC LOGGING
A four electrode arrangement is commonly employed in measuring resistivity from
bore hole
A current (I) is passed between the electrodes A and B while voltage is measured
between electrode M and N.
One current electrode is always ground potential and its effect can be
taken as negligible.
Conventionally there are two systems of electrode arrangement called the
normal and lateral.
In the normal arrangement, the distance MN is large compared to the
distance AM.
In lateral arrangement MN is very small compared to distance AM.
The logging tool with 3 electrodes built up in it(one being on the ground
N
surface) called the sonde is connected to a multi detector cable passing over a
sheave and via winch and electronic recorder mounted on a truck to a power
M
source.
a
The sonde is lowered into a hole and recorded with moving pen traces.
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The electrical resistivity on graph paper continuously with depth, as
sonde is withdrawn.
sh
This resistivity is the apparent resistivity Ra.
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R
N
M
Fig: Composite Log
a
This figure helps to read the electric logs correctly and locate the different zones
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encountered down the drilled hole.
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2. INDUCTION LOGGING
Induction logging measures the conductivity (Reciprocal of resistivity) of
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formations by means of induced alternating currents.
Rather than electrodes, insulated coils are used.
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The bore hole may contain any fluid or be empty but the hole must be
uncased.
It is specially used to investigate thin beds, because of its focusing
abilities and its greater investigation.
It is a superior method for surveying empty holes and holes drilled with
oil based muds.
3. SONIC LOGGING
The sonic logging records the time required for a sound wave to travel
through a specific length of formation.
The travel time are recorded continuously against depth.
The sonic log is recorded as time (Δt) in microseconds per metre.
The speed of sound in subsurface formation depends on the elastic
properties of the rock.
The sonic log enables the accurate determination of porosity of the formation
and water content.
n=
Where,
Vm= Velocity matrix
Vf = Velocity fluid
V = Velocity formation
N
Since the transit time Δt =1/V,
Δ Δ
M
n= Δ Δ
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4. FLUID LOGGING
Fluid logging includes the use of sondes to measure the temperature, quality
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and movement of fluid in a drill hole.
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a) Temperature logging:
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The rate of increase of temperature with depth depends on the locality
and heat conductivity of the formation.
It not only depends on the natural geothermal gradient but also on the
circulation of the mud.
It is used to identify aquifers, identifying rock types, moving and
stagnant water in a well and identify the source of recharge.
N
FIG: Temperature log
5. RADIOACTIVE LOGGING
M
Radioactive logs are of two general types,
a
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1. Gamma ray log
2. Neutron logging
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a) GAMMA RAY LOG
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This gamma ray log measures the natural radioactivity of the
formation.
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The minerals in shale’s and clay emit more gamma rays than the
minerals in gravel and sands so; this gamma ray can be used to
differentiate between sands, shale’s and clay.
The gamma ray from a source are scattered and diffused through the
formation.
The part of the gamma ray re-enter the hole is measured by an
approximate detector.
The higher the bulk density smaller will be the number of gamma ray
that reach the detector.
The gamma log is exponential function of bulk density.
By knowing the bulk density, porosity of the formation can be determined
(uncased holes only).
n=
Where,
= Grain density
= Bulk density
= Fluid density
b) NEUTRON LOGGING
These neutron loggings detect radiation reflected from or induced in
N
the formation from an artificial source.
The neutron rays are useful in determining the porosity of formations.
M
A fast moving neutron source is used to bombard the rock.
When an any individual neutron collides with a hydrogen ion of a
a
water molecule, some of the neutron’s energy is lost and it slows
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down.
A large number of slow neutrons as recorded by a slow neutron
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counter, indicates a large amount of fluid i.e., high porosity.
The gamma ray log does not indicate casing on the presence of fluid
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while the neutron log is sensitive to both casing and fluid in the holes.
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R
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a
M
N