Unit 4: Nuclear Physics
1. Nucleus and its Properties
The nucleus is the central part of an atom composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons).
Atomic number (Z): Number of protons
Mass number (A): Number of protons + neutrons
Nuclear radius: R=R0A1/3R=R0A1/3, where R0≈1.2 fmR0≈1.2fm
Density of nucleus: Very high and nearly constant across all nuclei
2. Nuclear Force
A strong, short-range attractive force between nucleons (protons and neutrons)
Independent of charge
Dominates over electrostatic repulsion at small distances
Saturates: each nucleon interacts with only a few neighbors
3. Stability of Nucleus
Depends on the neutron-to-proton (n/p) ratio
Stable nuclei lie within the "belt of stability"
Too many or too few neutrons lead to radioactive decay
4. Binding Energy
Energy required to disassemble a nucleus into its nucleons
Binding energy per nucleon: Stability indicator
BE=[Zmp+(A−Z)mn−M]c2BE=[Zmp+(A−Z)mn−M]c2
Where:
mpmp: Proton mass
mnmn: Neutron mass
MM: Actual nuclear mass
5. Nuclear Fission
Splitting of a heavy nucleus (e.g., U-235) into two lighter nuclei
Releases energy and neutrons
235U+n→141Ba+92Kr+3n+Energy235U+n→141Ba+92Kr+3n+Energy
Used in:
Nuclear reactors
Atomic (fission) bombs
6. Nuclear Fusion
Combination of light nuclei (e.g., hydrogen isotopes) to form a heavier nucleus
Releases more energy than fission
2H+3H→4He+n+Energy2H+3H→4He+n+Energy
Occurs in:
Stars
Hydrogen bombs
7. Nuclear Reactors
Devices that control fission chain reactions to produce energy
Main parts:
Fuel (U-235, Pu-239)
Moderator (graphite, heavy water) – slows neutrons
Control rods (cadmium/boron) – absorb excess neutrons
Coolant – transfers heat
Shielding – protects from radiation
8. Nuclear Bomb (Fission Bomb)
Based on uncontrolled nuclear fission
Example: Hiroshima bomb
9. Hydrogen Bomb (Fusion Bomb)
Uses a fission bomb to trigger nuclear fusion
Much more powerful than fission bombs
10. Radioactivity
Spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei into more stable forms with radiation emission.
Types:
Alpha (α): Helium nucleus; low penetration, high damage
Beta (β): Electron or positron; moderate penetration
Gamma (γ): High-energy photons; high penetration
11. Half-Life and Mean Life
Half-life (T₁/₂): Time for half the radioactive atoms to decay
N=N0(12)t/T1/2N=N0(21)t/T1/2
Mean life (τ):
τ=1λ=T1/2ln2τ=λ1=ln2T1/2
12. Carbon-14 Dating (C-14 Dating)
Used to determine age of ancient biological materials.
Based on measuring remaining C-14 isotope in organic remains
Half-life of C-14 ≈ 5730 years
13. Effects of Radiation
Biological effects: DNA damage, cancer, mutations
Environmental effects: Soil and water contamination
Radiation sickness: Nausea, fatigue, death at high doses
14. Nuclear Waste Disposal
Low-level waste: Buried safely
High-level waste: Requires long-term storage (e.g., deep geological repositories)
Challenges:
Long half-life
Risk of leakage
15. Particle Accelerators
Used to accelerate charged particles for nuclear research.
a) Linear Accelerator
Accelerates particles in a straight line using alternating voltages
Uses drift tubes of increasing length
b) Cyclotron
Accelerates particles in circular paths using magnetic field and high-frequency electric field
Invented by Lawrence
Used for producing radioisotopes, nuclear reactions