Mechanical Properties
Introduction
Mechanical properties of the material are related to the behaviour under load or stress in
tension, compression and shear.
Mechanical properties are determined by engineering tests under appropriate conditions.
Commonly determined mechanical properties are tensile strength, yield point, elastic limit,
creep strength, stress rupture, fatigue, elongation (ductility), impact strength (toughness and
brittleness), harness, and modulus of elasticity (ratio of stress to elastic strain-rigidity). The
strain may be elastic (present only during stressing) or plastic (permanent) deformation.
Mechanical properties are helpful to understand the desired shape obtained from the material.
Also, helpful to understand the material resistance to the anticipated mechanical forces
The words mechanical and physical are often erroneously used interchangeably. The above are
mechanical properties. Sometimes modulus of elasticity considered to be a physical property
of material because it is an inherent property that cannot be changed substantially by practical
means such as heat treatment or cold-working.
Mechanical Properties of Engineering materials
Strength
It is the property of a material which opposes the deformation or breakdown of material in
presence of external forces or load. Materials which we finalize for our engineering products,
must have suitable mechanical strength to be capable to work under different mechanical forces
or loads.
Toughness
It is the ability of a material to absorb the energy and gets plastically deformed without
fracturing. Its numerical value is determined by the amount of energy per unit volume. Its unit
is Joule/ m3. Value of toughness of a material can be determined by stress-strain characteristics
of a material. For good toughness, materials should have good strength as well as ductility.
For example: brittle materials, having good strength but limited ductility are not tough enough.
Conversely, materials having good ductility but low strength are also not tough enough.
Therefore, to be tough, a material should be capable to withstand both high stress and strain.
Hardness
It is the ability of a material to resist to permanent shape change due to external stress. There
are various measure of hardness – Scratch Hardness and Indentation Hardness.
Scratch Hardness
Scratch Hardness is the ability of materials to the oppose the scratches to outer surface layer
due to external force.
Indentation Hardness
It is the ability of materials to oppose the dent due to punch of external hard and sharp objects.
Hardenability
It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment processing. It is determined
by the depth up to which the material becomes hard. The SI unit of hardenability is meter
(similar to length).
Hardenability is inversely proportional to a material’s weldability, meaning materials easier to
harden are typically harder to weld.
Brittleness
Brittleness describes a material’s tendency to fracture easily under stress, absorbing little
energy and breaking with minimal strain. This property is the opposite of ductility and varies
with temperature; for instance, some metals that are ductile at room temperature become brittle
in cold conditions.
Malleability
Malleability is a property of solid materials which indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under compressive stress. Malleability is often categorized by the ability of material
to be formed in the form of a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is
an aspect of plasticity of material. Malleability of material is temperature dependent. With rise
in temperature, the malleability of material increases.
Ductility
Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the ability of material to get
stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This mechanical property is also an aspect of
plasticity of material and is temperature dependent. With rise in temperature, the ductility of
material increases.
Creep
Creep refers to the slow, permanent deformation of a material under sustained mechanical
stress, typically occurring within the yield limit from prolonged exposure. This property is
exacerbated in materials exposed to high temperatures over long periods.
Resilience
Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is deformed elastically by
applying stress and release the energy when stress is removed. Proof resilience is defined as
the maximum energy that can be absorbed without permanent deformation. The modulus of
resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without
permanent deformation.
Fatigue
Fatigue is the weakening of a material due to repeated loading cycles. When cyclic loads exceed
a certain threshold—yet remain below the material’s ultimate strength—microscopic cracks
can form at grain boundaries. These cracks grow until they reach a critical size, causing sudden
fracture. Structural design, like the presence of square holes or sharp corners, significantly
influences where fatigue cracks initiate.
Heat Treatment
Introduction
Heat treatment involves heating a material and then cooling it to enhance its performance,
strength, and characteristics. Heat treatment can be applied to metals to increase their
malleability for easier shaping, or to harden components for enhanced strength. Essentially,
heat treatment encompasses all methods used to alter the physical properties of a material, such
as metal, through heating or cooling processes.
All heat treatment processes involve heating and cooling metals, but they differ mainly in three
aspects: the temperatures used for heating, the cooling rates, and the quenching methods
applied to achieve the desired properties. Proper equipment is essential for effective heat
treatment of metals, as it allows precise control over heating, cooling, and quenching
conditions. The heating chamber must be equipped with the correct size, type, and gas mixture
to regulate temperature accurately. Additionally, the choice of quenching media must be
suitable to ensure proper cooling of the metal.
Stages of Heat-Treating Metal
Heat treatment generally consists of three primary stages, outlined below:
1. The slow heating of the metal to ensure the maintenance of a uniform temperature by
the metal.
2. The soaking or holding of the metal at a specific temperature for a stipulated period of
time.
3. The metal cooling under room temperature conditions.
The Purpose of Heat Treating
Heat treatment fulfills several objectives, including:
• To improve the mechanical properties of a material that include hardness, tensile
strength, shock resistance, ductility, and resistance to corrosion.
• To improve machinability and reduce brittleness.
• For the relief of the internal stresses of the metal-induced during hot or cold working.
• To change the grain size or refine it.
• To increase the magnetic and electric properties.
• To increase the resistance to corrosion as well as resistance to wear.
• To improve the hardness of the surface of the material.
• To improve the limit of fatigue of medium and small-sized parts like gears, wrist pins,
shafts etc.
• To give an appearance that is clean, bright and pleasing to the hardened surface.
• To obtain a tough core though case hardening.
• Heat treating improves the hardening properties of steel to allow it to cut other metals.
• To promote the uniformity of a structure.
Some common forms of heat treatments include:
Hardening: When a metal is hardened, it’s heated to a point where the elements in the material
transform into a solution. Defects in the structure are then transformed by creating a reliable
solution and strengthening the metal. This increases the hardness of the metal or alloy, making
it less malleable.
Annealing: This process is used on metals like copper, aluminium, silver, steel, and brass.
These materials are heated to a certain temperature, are held at that temperature until
transformation occurs, and then are slowly air-dried. This process softens the metal, making it
more workable and less likely to fracture or crack.
Tempering: Some materials like iron-based alloys are very hard, making them brittle.
Tempering can reduce brittleness and strengthen the metal. In the tempering process, the metal
is heated to a temperature lower than the critical point to reduce brittleness and maintain
hardness.
Case Hardening: The outside of the material is hardened while the inside remains soft. Since
hardening can cause materials to become brittle, case hardening is used for materials that
require flexibility while maintaining a durable wear layer.
Normalization: Similar to annealing, this process makes the steel more tough and ductile by
heating the material to critical temperatures and keeping it at this temperature until
transformation occurs.
Some sheet metal forming process
Piercing
Piercing is a sheet metal process where a punch creates a hole in the metal, but unlike blanking,
the removed material is scrap, and the hole remains in the sheet. It is used in making perforated
sheets, washers, and metal brackets.
Drawing
Drawing is a metal forming process where a flat sheet is pulled into a die by a punch to create
three-dimensional shapes without altering thickness, such as aluminum cans, fuel tanks, and
kitchen sinks.
Spinning
Spinning is a process where a rotating metal disc is pressed against a mandrel to form axially
symmetric parts like cookware, satellite dishes, and lampshades.
Wire and Rod Drawing
It is a process where metal rods or wires are pulled through a series of progressively smaller
dies to achieve precise diameters and improved mechanical properties, commonly used for
electrical wiring, cables, and steel reinforcement bars.
Tube Drawing
It is a similar process but applied to hollow tubes, reducing their diameter and improving
surface finish, often used in making medical syringes, heat exchanger tubes, and hydraulic
cylinders.
Hobbing
Hobbing is a gear manufacturing process where a rotating hob (cutting tool) gradually forms
teeth on cylindrical workpieces, widely used in making gears for automobiles, aerospace
applications, and industrial machinery.