102 BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 6

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS

You have learnt that classification is the ideal metazoans. Based on complexity of organisation,
means of studying the diversity of organisms. metazoans are further subdivided into two
You are also familiar with the systems of subkingdoms, the Parazoa and Eumetazoa. In
classification, in general (Chapter 4). The two- Parazoa (e.g. sponges), the cells are loosely
kingdom classification divides the living aggregated and do not form tissues or organs.
organisms, viz. all plants into ‘Plantae’ and all In Eumetazoa, which includes the rest of the
animals into ‘Animalia’. With the availability of animals, the cells are organised into structural
more information about microorganisms, and functional units called tissues, organs and
biologists have added kingdoms and grouped the organ systems. The body plan of eumetazoans
unicellular plants and animals together into resembles either a blind sac (cnidarians like
‘Protista’. In this system, ‘Plantae’ contains only Hydra and platyhelminthes) or a tube within a
the multicellular plants and ‘Animalia’ contains tube plan (rest of eumetazoans).Figure 6.1 shows
only the multicellular animals. You have learnt the different body plans.
about various plant groups in the previous Symmetry
chapter. This chapter will help you to acquaint
with the important characteristics relevant for The parazoan animals, sponges, lack any definite
classification of animals, including the symmetry. The eumetazoan animals can be
unicellular protozoan protists. grouped into two categories based on symmetry
(Fig. 6.2). When any plane passing through the
6.1 SOME GENERAL FEATURES central axis of the body divides the organism
OF ANIMALS into halves that are approximately mirror images
Animals make up millions of species and are it is called radial symmetry and the animals
among the most beautiful living things. They showing this symmetry are called Radiata. For
are very diverse in form, ranging from single- example, cnidarians (sea anemone, jellyfish and
celled microscopic ones (Amoeba) to multi- corals) and ctenophorans (comb jellies) have this
cellular macroscopic whales and giant squids. kind of body plan. These animals have an oral
and the opposite aboral ends but no left and
Grades of Organisation and right sides. In the remaining eumetazoans, the
Body Plan body can be divided into identical left and right
Animals though show different shapes and sizes halves in only one plane. This kind of symmetry
but possess either cellular, tissue, organ or organ is called bilateral symmetry and such animals
system of organisation. The cellular grade of are called Bilateria. These animals, for example
organisation can be observed in all protozoans fish, have a front or anterior end and a rear or
(unicellular or acellular) where all the vital posterior end, an upper back or dorsal side and
activities of the body are performed by a single a lower belly or ventral side.
cell, for example Amoeba. Animal cells are
diverse in structure and function, lack a rigid Diploblastic and Triploblastic
cell wall and are quite flexible. The next higher Organisation
level of body organisation is observed in In radiata, the cells are arranged into two
multicellular animals, which are called fundamental layers, an external ectoderm and
 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 103

Eumetazoa

radial symmetry - organ grade bilateral symmetry - organ system grade

Non-metameric
segmentation

Metameric
segmentation

Coelomata
Mesoderm Pseudocoel
Coelome

Mesoderm
Ectoderm Ectoderm
Endoderm

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 6.1 Diagrammatic representation showing body organisation (grades and symmetry) and developmental
plan in protozoa and metazoa. Coelom is absent in acoelomates (a) Formation of coelom in other
bilateria is shown in cross-sectional view. (b-d) In pseudocoelomata, the main body cavity is a
pseudocoel, (b) Coelom formation takes place by splitting of mesodermal pouches present on the
lateral sides of the prospective gut, and (c) by growth of lateral mesodermal pouches from the
endoderm.
 104 BIOLOGY

(a) (b) (c)

Dorsal (back)
Anterior (front) Posterior (tail)

Ventral (underside)
Fig. 6.2 Body symmetry (a) Radial symmetry in a sea anemone (b) Bilateral symmetry in a fly (c) A bilaterally
symmetric (fish)
an internal endoderm with an intervening Heterotrophic Mode of Nutrition
mesoglea. Such animals are, therefore, called Unlike plants, which synthesise their own food
diploblastic. In Bilateria, a third germ layer, and are called autotrophs. Animals that feed
mesoderm, is present in between the ectoderm upon other living forms are called heterotrophs.
and endoderm. Hence, they are called The heterotrophs may be herbivores (eating
triploblastic animals. In these animals, plants), carnivores (eating animals) and
embryonic blastopore forms mouth in prostomia omnivores (eating both animals and plants).
and anus in deuterostomia. There are animals that depend on other
Segmentation organisms for food. These are called parasites
and the relationship is known as host- parasitic
In some Bilateria the body is of many segments,
relationship.
which show serial repetition of parts, for
example, earthworm. This kind of segmentation Active Movement
is called metameric segmentation and the Compared to members of other kingdoms, animals
phenomenon is known as metamerism. perform a more rapid and complex way of
Body Cavity or Coelom movement called locomotion. Some animals can
fly (butterflies, bats and birds). Some can swim
The building plan of Bilateria is achieved from
(jellyfish, squids, fishes, whales) and others can
the three primary germ layers of their embryos,
run or walk on land. Movement of animals is
viz., ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. The
directly related to the flexibility of their cells, and
space between body wall and alimentary canal
perhaps, the most striking characteristic of
(body cavity) remains lined by mesoderm and is
animals.
called coelom. Visceral organs lie in the coelom.
The animals in which the coelom is absent are Reproduction and Development
called acoelomates, for example flatworms. In Most animals reproduce sexually. Cells formed
them, the space between ectoder m and after meiosis function directly as gametes. Male
endoderm is filled with parenchyma derived from produces male gametes (spermatozoa), and
mesoderm. Still in some Bilateria, the body female produces female gametes (ova). Fusion of
cavity is not lined by mesoderm. Instead, the gametes (fertilization) results in the formation of
mesoderm is present as scattered pouches in a zygote. As a result of sequential development,
between the ectoderm and endoderm. Such a zygote produces a complete organism.
body cavity is called pseudocoelom and the
animals (e.g. roundwor ms) possessing 6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
pseudocoelom are called pseudocoelomates The animal kingdom includes about 35 Phyla
(See Fig.6.1). (sing. Phylum) of which 11 are considered as
 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 105

major Phyla. Almost 99 per cent of animals are protozoans are holophytic; they contain
invertebrates (animals without backbone) and chlorophyll and prepare their own food by
the remaining represents the vertebrates photosynthesis (e.g. Euglena). The parasitic
(animals with backbone). Also, the animals are protozoans feed on materials obtained from the
categorised into two major groups, non- hosts (e.g. Monocystis).
chordates and chordates, on the basis of the Contractile vacuole is found in almost all
presence or absence of notochord at some stage fresh-water protozoans for maintenance of
in their life. We will study the important osmotic concentration of cell body, the
characteristics of these groups. phenomenon is known as osmoregulation.
Contractile vacuole also helps in excretion.
Phylum Protozoa Many sporozoan parasites are relatively
(Unicellular Protist Animals) harmless, but some are harmful also. For
There are about 15,000 species of protozoans instance, Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium
known to exist in the world. They are microscopic falciparum cause malaria in humans.
organisms in which a single cell performs all Protozoans are generally uninucleate, but
the vital activities. For this reason, protozoans ciliates and many amoeboid types are
are also referred to as acellular organisms. They multinucleate.
are aquatic (fresh water and marine), and The pattern of reproduction is also very
cosmopolitan in distribution. Some forms are specialised in different protozoans. Most
parasitic. The protozoan cell body is either sarcodines, flagellates and ciliates show asexual
naked, for example, Amoeba, or surrounded by reproduction by binary fission, multiple fission
a non-rigid pellicle. Cellulose is absent in or even budding. Some ciliates, for example,
pellicle. Some protozoans secrete shells of Paramoecium reproduce by sexual means in
various inorganic compounds as external covers which two individuals come close to each other
(foraminiferans). Different types of locomotory and interchange genetic material by a process
organs are found in protozoans. They may bear known as conjugation. There is no gamete
flagella (flagellates), or cilia (ciliates) (Fig.6.3), formation in such a process. In sporozoa, some
pseudopodia (sarcodines). stages of life cycle show formation of gametes,
which are morphologically distinct.
(a) (b) (c)
Examples
Free living - Euglena, Amoeba, Paramoecium,
Noctiluca and Elphidium.
Parasitic - Monocystis, Entamoeba, Plasmodium,
Trypanosoma and Giardia.
Phylum-Porifera
(Pore Bearing Animals)
Members of this Phylum are commonly known
Fig. 6.3 Some examples of protozoans with as sponges. They are the most primitive group
different types of locomotory organs: of multicellular animals. About 5000 species of
(a) T rypanosoma having flagellum sponges are known. Most of them are marine
(flagellate) (b) Helizoan bearing cilia (ciliate) and remain attached to rocks (sessile). A few
(c) Tetrahymena having cilia
live in fresh water. Some sponges have been
Locomotory organs are absent in the parasitic found in rocks which are more than 600 million
forms (Sporozoa). In them, neurofibrils and years old. They range from 1 cm to 1 metre in
contractile myofibrils are present underneath length. Some are radially symmetrical, but the
the cell surface. Most protozoans are free-living larger ones are asymmetrical. They are
and aquatic. They are holozoic and feed largely multicellular and represent cell aggregate body
on bacteria, microscopic algae and minute plans. As they have no tissue grade of
animals such as rotifers or on other protozoans organisation they are included in the
including members of their own species. Some subkingdom Parazoa (Fig. 6.4).
 106 BIOLOGY

(a) (b)

Fig. 6.4 Shapes of some sponges : (a) radially symmetric and (b) asymmetric forms

Sponges are sessile, grow into various shapes through the osculum. Sponges are
(Fig. 6.4), and are attached to an under-water diploblastic. They also contain amoebocytes,
object, except the fresh water sponges. pinacocytes and other cell types.
Numerous pores connect the outside to a central The body is supported by an internal skeleton
chamber (Fig. 6.5). Several minute pores (ostia; formed of innumerable calcareous or siliceous
sing. ostium) present on the body lead into spicules or proteinaceous spongin fibres.
canals (canal system) lined by flagellated collar Sponges reproduce asexually by
cells (choanocytes). At the terminal point of the fragmentation. They exhibit great power of
body a large aperture called osculum is regeneration. During sexual reproduction some
present. Water along with food enters the cells become egg or sper m cells. After
canals through the ostia and comes out along fertilisation, the zygote develops into a flagellated
with excretory materials, sper m and ova larva, which swims, settles in a new place and
grows into a sponge.
Examples
(a) (b)
Sycon (Scypha), Spongilla, Poterion (Neptune’s cup),
Spicule Spongin
Amoeboid Chalina (Dead man’s finger), Euspongia (Bath
cell sponge) and Euplectella (Venus flower basket).
Pores Osculum Phylum Cnidaria
Flat cell The phylum Cnidaria includes about 9,000
species, which are mainly marine; few are fresh
water. The phylum name is derived from the
Canal Collar cell stinging cells or cnidoblasts present on the
ectoder m of tentacles and body of these
carnivorous animals. Cnidarians have achieved
tissue grade of organisation and they exhibit a
blind sac body plan and radial symmetry
(Fig. 6.6).
Cnidarians are diploblastic animals in which
Fig. 6.5 (a) A cut-away diagram of a simple sponge
the body wall consists of only two layers of cells,
showing pores, canal, osculum and
internal central chamber (b) Cross-section an outer ectoderm and an inner endoderm,
of a sponge wall showing flagellated collar separated by a gelatinous layer of mesoglea
cells lining a pore, flat and amoeboid cells (Fig.6.7). Body contains the oral aperture, for
and matrix material
 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 107

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

Tentacle
Mouth

Digestive
cavity

Fig. 6.8 Polyp and medusa body forms (a) sessile

polyp (b) swimming medusa
(c) (d)
ingestion and egestion, leading into a
gastrovascular cavity and anus is absent. Such
an enteron with single opening is called coelenteron
hence the previous name of the phylum was
Coelenterata which used to include the Cnidarians
along with Ctenophores. At present, the
Ctenophores have been assigned a separate
phylum status.
The endodermal cells lining the gastrovascular
cavity are specialised for secreting digestive
enzymes. These enzymes partly digest food by
extracellular digestion, which is then absorbed as
Fig. 6.6 Some cnidarians (a) Obelia (b) Jellyfish
solution and ingested as small particles as well, by
(c) Physalia (d) Sea anemone the endoderm. Undigested material is egested
through the mouth.
Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms, the polyp
Cnidocyte
and medusa (Fig. 6.8). The polyp is sessile, solitary
Thread
or colonial and resembles a cylindrical stalk with
Mouth Nematocyst
mouth and tentacles facing upwards. The medusa
is a solitary and free-swimming. It is like a bell or
an umbrella with mouth and tentacles facing
Discharged
downwards. The medusa can be regarded as an
nematocyst upside-down polyp with reduced stalk, which can
swim away. In many cnidarians, polyps give rise
to medusae by vegetative budding, and medusae
Mesoglea
form polyps following sexual reproduction.
Cnidarians like Obelia, pass through both polyp
Muscular
and medusa stages in their life cycles
Bud
Cell (dimorphism). Polyps reproduce asexually by
budding whereas medusae liberate gametes into
Sensory water during sexual reproduction. Both asexual
cell and sexual forms are diploid and the only haploid
Secretory Ectoderm
cells are gametes. Such alternation of asexual and
cell Endoderm Nerve set sexual phases in the life cycle of Obelia is called
metagenesis. It should not be confused with
Fig. 6.7 Structure of Hydra alternation of generations as found in plants.
 108 BIOLOGY

Some forms show division of labour by forming

structurally and functionally different types of
individual (zooids) within the same organism
during its life history. This is called
polymorphism. Following fertilisation, the
zygote forms a ciliated larva called planula,
which swims, settles and grows into a sessile
polyp. Some cnidarians, like Hydra, do not have
a medusa stage.
Examples
Hydra, Porpita, Vellela, Physalia (Portuguese
man-of-war), Aurelia (Jellyfish), Adamsia (Sea Fig. 6.9 Some flatworms (a) Fluke (b) Turbellaria
anemone), Pennatula (Sea-pen) and Gorgonia (c) Planaria (d) Tapeworm
(Sea-fan). These are triploblastic and unsegmented
animals exhibiting bilateral symmetry. They are
Phylum Ctenophora acoelomate and parenchyma cells originating
Ctenophores are marine animals with from mesoderm fill up the cavities of the body.
transparent and flat or oval body shape. Polyp Their bodies remain externally covered by cilia
phase is absent in their life cycle. These are or cuticle. Platyhelminthes show organ-system
bilaterally symmetrical and devoid of cnidoblast grade of body organisation. Alimentary canal
cells. When the tentacles are present they are is incomplete having mouth opening but no
two in number and contain colloblast cells. anus. The parasitic forms lack alimentary
These animals move by cilia, which join together canal. They absorb nutrients of the host
directly through their body surface. The
to form comb plates; there are eight median
nervous system contains a concentration of
comb plates. Gastrovascular cavity is branched
nervous tissue in the head called the brain
and open to the exterior by stomodaeum. They
ganglion. A pair of ventral nerve cord leads
are diploblastic animals but the mesoglea is
from this ganglion posteriorly. A transverse
different from that of cnidaria; it contains
nerve connecting the cords gives the system
amoebocytes and smooth muscle cells and is
a ladder like appearance. These worms have
comparable to a loose layer of cells. From this
an exterior cuticle instead of an epidermis.
viewpoint, ctenophores may be considered as
triploblastic. The presence of a special sense Head bears hooks and suckers. Life history
organ at the opposite end of the mouth (aboral usually involves intermediate hosts.
end) is the characteristic of the members of this Flatworms have specialised cells called flame
phylum. They reproduce only by sexual means cells, for excretion and osmoregulation.
and do not exhibit larval phase in their life cycle. They reproduce both asexually and sexually.
Flatworms can regenerate the entire body from
Examples
a body part similar to the sponges and
Hormiphora, Ctenoplana and Beroe. cnidarians. The phenomenon of regeneration
Phylum Platyhelminthes is asexual reproduction. They are
(Flatworms) hermaphrodite or bisexual, that is, both male
and female sex cells are produced by the same
There are about 13,000 species belonging to the
individual. But the structure of body facilitates
phylum Platyhelminthes. These are dorso-
cross-fertilisation rather than self-fertilisation.
ventrally flattened and, hence, commonly known
as flatworms. These are mostly parasites that Examples
live in other animals, including humans. Some
Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liver fluke),
are free-living forms, mainly aquatic-marine or
freshwater (Fig. 6.9). Echinococcus, Schistosoma and Planaria.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 109

Phylum Nemathelminthes (Aschelminthes) The mouth may be armed with teeth to cut and
(Roundworms) pierce tissues. The muscular pharynx allows
Phylum Nemathelminthes is represented by the parasitic nematode to suck blood from the
about 15,000 species of roundworms. These are host. The body wall has longitudinal muscles
also known as nematodes. Their bodies appear and an elastic cuticle. The false body cavity
allows body wall muscles and digestive tract
circular in cross-section, hence, the name
muscles to act independently of each other.
roundworm. Though not apparent, they are
Roundworms have a flexible body movement.
possibly the most abundant among animals.
An organised nerve ganglion is present around
Vast quantities of microscopic free-living
the pharynx with dorsal and ventral nerves to
nematodes, such as Rhabditis, live in soil rich
co-ordinate movement. An excretory tube
in organic matter. Others are aquatic or parasitic
removes body wastes from the body cavity.
(Fig. 6.10).
Sexes are usually separate (dioecious) and
morphologically distinct; often females are
longer than the males. Fertilized eggs have a
Female thick wall and can survive in adverse
conditions.
Examples
Male Ascaris, Wuchereria (Filaria worm), Ancylostoma
(Hookworm), Enterobius (Pin worm) and
Rhabditis.
Phylum Annelida
Trichorella Ascaris
Fig. 6.10 Some roundworms The phylum Annelida includes over 9,000
species of metamerically segmented animals
Roundworms are bilaterally symmetrical, with a true coelom. The coelom too is
triploblastic and pseudocoelomate animals with partitioned segmentally by peritoneal
an organ system grade of organization and tube- membranous septa. Annelids are triploblastic
within-a-tube body plan. They possess elongated and bilaterally symmetrical animals with organ-
body with pointed ends. The digestive tract is system grade of organisation. Each segment is
differentiated into mouth, pharynx, intestine and externally divided into many parts by rings
anus (Fig.6.11). (Latin, annulus) and, hence, the name Annelida
Mouth (Fig. 6.12).
The body is covered by definite cuticle
Nerve ganglion secreted from the ectoderm. The body wall of
Pharynx annelids has both longitudinal and circular
Dorsal nerve
muscles. These contract alternately against the
Ventral nerve Excretory tube fluid-filled septa during locomotion. Bristles or
Pseudocoelom setae on the lower side help to grip the ground
Cuticle
during locomotion. Polychaetes (Neries) have
numerous setae on lateral appendages called
parapodia. Leeches being ectoparasites do not
Intestine
possess either setae or parapodia and swim by
Seminal undulatory movement by musculature. The
vesicle digestive system of annelids is more advanced
than nematodes and contains distinct mouth
Anus
and anus at opposite ends of the body. It
consists of a muscular pharynx to swallow food,
an oesophagus to carry it to the stomach where
it is churned and digested, and a long intestine
Fig. 6.11 Structure of a roundworm (male) to absorb nutrients. Undigested waste is
 110 BIOLOGY

Fig. 6.12 Some annelids: (a) Neries (b) Earthworm (c) Leech
compacted and expelled as worm castings above the pharynx and connected by lateral
through the anus. A closed circulatory system of nerves to a double ventral nerve cord. Sexes
blood vessels, a heart to pump the blood is found are separate in polychaetes but earthworms
for the first time in annelids. The main blood and leeches are hermaphrodites.
vessels, one dorsal and one ventral, have Examples
branches in each body segment which supply
Neries, Aphrodite (sea mouse), Pheretima
blood to the skin, muscles, intestines and other
(Earthworm), Tubifex, Hirudinaria (Leech),
organs. Oxygenation of blood occurs through the
moist skin. Therefore, the earthworm can live Chaetopterus, Terebella, and Bonnellia.
only in a moist condition. The excretory organs Phylum Mollusca (Soft Bodied Animals)
are paired nephridia (sing. nephridium) in each
segment. They are special tubes, which collect Phylum Mollusca (L. Mollis : soft-bodied) is the
excretory waste from the coelom to the outside. second largest animal phylum which includes
They also help in maintaining water balance of over 60,000 species. Molluscs form an ancient
the body (osmoregulation). Body action is co- group, they have lived over 500 million years.
ordinated by a pair of cerebral ganglia (sing. They are triploblastic coelomates and usually
ganglion), which are collection of nerve cell with bilateral symmetry. They are terrestrial,
bodies. These are present at the anterior end marine or fresh water inhabitants (Fig. 6.13).

Fig. 6.13 Some molluscs: (a) Unio (b) Snail (c) Shell-less slug (d) Octopus (e) Squid
 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 111

The body of molluscs is soft but protected by hard Examples

calcareous shell. Pila (apple snail), Achatina (land snail),
Shell Stomach Intestine Lamellidens (mussel), Pinctada (pearl oyster),
Mantle
Radula
Sepia (cuttlefish), Loligo (squid), Octopus
Anus (devilfish), Doris (sea-lemon), Aplysia (sea-hare)
and Teredo (shipworm).
Phylum Arthropoda
(Animals with jointed appendages)
Mouth Digestive Heart Gills Mantle The phylum Arthropoda (L. Arthros : jointed;
gland cavity podos : legs or appendages) constitutes the
Fig. 6.14 Body plan of a mollusc (hypothetical) largest group of animals with about 900,000
species. These are triploblastic, coelomate and
Figure 6.14 shows body organisation of a bilaterally symmetrical animals (Figs. 6.15,
typical mollusc. The body is unsegmented and 6.16). The body of arthropods is covered by
differentiated into a head, a ventral soft and chitinous cuticle, which forms the exoskeleton.
muscular foot, and a dorsal visceral hump. The Arthropods have a segmented body, each
skin is soft and it forms a mantle over the hump. segment bearing a pair of jointed appendages
The visceral hump contains the main digestive covered by a jointed exoskeleton. The segments
and circulatory organs. Below the mantle, it are not separated by septa as in annelids. The
has a number of feather-like gills. Gills have body consists of head, thorax and abdomen, in
respiratory and excretory functions. The some cases, head and thorax may be fused to
anterior head region has sensory tentacles. The form cephalothorax. The head consists of several
mouth contains a file-like rasping organ for fused segments with appendages modified to
feeding, called radula. Molluscs are basically serve as antennae (feelers), mouthparts or
oviparous and development is through a pincers (chelicerae). Arachnids have no
trochophore larva.

Fig. 6.15 Some common arthropods : (a) Centipede (b) Millipede (c) Beetle (d) Prawn (e) Spider and
(f) Scorpion
 112 BIOLOGY

eyes, statocysts or balance organs, receptors for

taste (located in their feet in insects) and sound
receptors (in chirping crickets and cicadas). The
arthropod eyes may be simple or compound. The
heart is dorsal and circulatory system is open.
The central nervous system consists of paired
preoral ganglia connected by commissures to a
solid ventral nerve cord, which is double and
contains segmental ganglia and nerves.
Arthropods are unisexual. In a few aquatic
arthropods, fertilisation is external, that is male
and female sex cells fuse outside the body in
water. But in others fertilisation is internal; the
male deposits the sperm within the female sex
organ. In all land arthropods, fertilization is
always inter nal. Eggs are laid by most
arthropods. They are oviparous. In some, like
the scorpion, the eggs hatch within the female
body. They bring forth the young alive. They
are viviparous. In many arthropods,
development is direct. The young, hatched from
eggs, resemble the adult and often occupy the
same habitat. They grow by moulting. In others,
the egg hatches into an independent larva, which
does not resemble the adult; there are many
larval forms. The process of transformation of
a larva into an adult is called metamorphosis.
Larvae and adults may show a different feeding
habit and occupy different habitats.
Examples
Araneus (garden spider), Limulus (king crab),
Buthus (scorpion), Eupagurus (hermit crab),
Cancer (common crab), Macrobrachium (prawn),
Lepisma (silverfish), Periplaneta (cockroach),
Apis (bee), Anopheles (mosquito), Musca
(housefly), Leptocorisa (paddy pest: gandhi
poka) Triops (tadpole fish), Daphnia (water flea),
Cyclops, Squilla, Astacus (crayfish), Lepas, and
Balanus (barnacle).
Fig. 6.16 A few common insects (a) Silverfish
(wingless form) (b) Dragonfly (wings non- Phylum Echinodermata
foldable) (c) Cockroach, grasshopper, (Spiny Animals)
praying mantis, aphid (wings foldable) About 6000 species belong to the phylum
Bedbug (wingless) (d) Butterfly, beetle Echinodermata (L. echinos : spiny, dermatos :
skin); the ectoderm bears many spines and,
antennae. Thoracic segments have legs (and hence, the name. All are marine, triploblastic
wings); the abdomen has no legs in insects. and coelomate (Fig. 6.17). The adult
Respiratory organs are gills, book gills, book echinoderms are radially symmetrical with
lungs, or tracheal system. Excretion takes place body parts occurring in five axes (pentamerous
through green glands or malpighian tubules radial symmetry). Larvae are bilaterally
since nephridia are absent. Sensory structures symmetrical. The exoskeleton is calcareous
in arthropods are antennae for perceiving odour, consisting of many plate-like structures called
 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 113

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g)

Ring canal

Radial canal

Tube feet

Fig. 6.17 Some echinoderms (a) Starfish (b) Sand dollar (c) Sea urchin (d) Holothuroid (e) Sea cucumber
(f) Brittle star (g) Cut-away diagram to show the water-vascular system of a star fish

ossicles. They have a mouth on the lower side called tube feet (Fig. 6.17g). Their main function
and anus on the upper side. The most is locomotion and the capture of food. The tube
distinctive feature of echinoderms is the feet also serve as the equivalent of gills during
presence of water vascular system, which is a respiration. These animals have no proper
part of the coelom. It consists of an array of circulatory system. Encircling the oesophagus
radiating canals and tube-like appendages and situated close to the ring canal is a nerve
 114 BIOLOGY

ring from which emanate five radial nerves, one Hollow dorsal
to each arm. Excretion is achieved partly by nerve chord
diffusion through the body surface, partly by Notochord
amoeboid cells in the coelomic fluid. These cells
absorb excretory waste and carry it to the
exterior through the skin and gills. Sexes are
Mouth Anus
separate with five pairs of sex organs, one pair
Gill slits Ventral artery
in each arm. In most cases fertilisation occurs pumping blood
in open water. The development includes a free
swimming larva. This larva undergoes a very Fig. 6.18 Internal organization of a hypothetical
complex metamorphosis into a young radial chordate.
adult.
Examples features of chordates and non-chordates.
Phylum Chordata is divided into four subphyla,
Asterias (star fish or sea star), Echinus (sea
subphylum Hemichordata or Stomochordata,
urchin), Echinocardium (heart urchin), Antedon
subphylum Urochordata or Tunicata,
(feather star or sea lily), Cucumaria (sea
subphylum Cephalochordata or Acrania and
cucumber)and Ophiura (brittle star).
subphylum Vertebrata. The first three subphyla
Phylum Chordata (Chordates) are considered primitive and often referred to
The taxonomic category Chordata refers to the as protochordates or nonvertebrate chordates.
group of animals, which possess notochord All of them are marine and possess notochord
either throughout or during early embryonic but never for m a vertebral column. In
life. Thus, the animals without notochord are Hemichordata or Stomochordata, true notochord
referred to as nonchordates. Notochord is a stiff is absent but gill slits are present; in
and flexible rod of tissues lying ventral to nerve Urochordata or Tunicata, notochord is present
cord. All the chordates are triploblastic, only in larval tail; in Cephalochordata or Acrania
coelomate and bilaterally symmetrical. They notochord extends from head to tail region. Due
possess a post anal tail and closed blood to the absence of true notochord in
vascular system. The other common features Hemichordata many taxonomists do not
of chordates are: a dorsal hollow nerve cord consider these animals as Chordates.
and paired pharyngeal gill slits. These chordate Examples
characters are shown in the diagrammatic Hemichordata or Stomochordata – Balanoglossus
representation of a hypothetical chordate in (acorn worm) and Glossobalanus.
Fig. 6.18. Urochordata or Tunicata - Ascidia, Ciona, Salpa
Table 6.1 presents a comparison of salient and Doliolum.

Table 6.1 Differences between Chordate and Non-chordate Animals

 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 115

Cephalochordata or Acrania – Branchiostoma

(Amphioxus or lancelet).
In the members of subphylum Vertebrata, the
Mouth
Eye Anus Tail fin
notochord is present during the embryonic Gill slits
period and replaced by vertebral column in the
adult. A series of vertebrae surround the Fig. 6.19 Jawless vertebrate- Agnatha (Lamprey).
notochord along with dorsal nerve cord. Thus,
all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates After spawning they stop feeding and within
are not vertebrates. a few days they die. Their characteristic larvae
Besides the three chordate characters, after metamorphosis migrate to the ocean.
vertebrates have a ventral muscular heart with Examples
two, three or four chambers, kidneys for
excretion and osmoregulation, and two pairs of Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hag fish).
lateral appendages, fins or limbs. Class Chondrichthyes — Class Chondrichthyes
On the basis of absence or presence of jaw includes all marine fishes with cartilaginous
endoskeleton. There are about 600 species of
the sub-phylum Vertebrata is further subdivided
cartilaginous fishes found all over the world.
into two sub groups, super class Agnatha, which
The body is streamlined with five pairs of gill
lacks jaws, and super class Gnathostomata,
slits without any gill cover. Gill slits may be
which bears jaws. Only one class of living
present either on the lateral or ventral side of
members, class Cyclostomata, represents the
the head. The commonly known
super class Agnatha. All other vertebrates which
chondrichthyes are sharks, skates and rays
possess jaws are included in the super class
(Fig. 6.20). Sharks are fast- swimming
Gnathostomata. They are divided into six classes
predators whereas the rays and skates are
namely Chondrichthyes (fish with cartilaginous
slow, bottom- living scavengers and mollusc-
skeleton), Osteichthyes (fish with bony skeleton),
feeders. Sharks may vary in length. These
Amphibia (dual amphibious life), Reptilia (dry may be 30 cm or may attain a length up to
scale covered body), Aves (feathered body), and 16 m. Swimming is forbidden at some sea
Mammalia (milk-producing gland). Animals of
classes Cyclostomata, Chondrichthyes and (a)
Osteichthyes bear fins for locomotion. The
animals of other four classes are four-limbed,
called Tetrapods. These classes are Amphibia,
Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia. In the subsequent
text you will study salient features and general
characters of different vertebrate classes.
Class Cyclostomata — All living members of the
class Cyclostomata are parasites on some fishes.
Cyclostomes have an elongated body bearing 6-
14 pairs of gill slits in their gill pouch for
respiration and containing a sucking and
circular mouth. Their body is devoid of scales (b)
and paired fins. A single dorsal nostril leads into
a closed nasal sac. A functional pineal eye is
present just behind it. Single sex organ
discharges gametes in the well-developed
coelom. Cranium and vertebral column are
cartilaginous with persistent notochord. Heart
is surrounded by a cartilaginous capsule.
Stomach is absent. Circulation is a typical
vertebrate type. Lampreys are marine and
migrate for spawning into rivers (Fig.6.19). Fig. 6.20 Cartilaginous fish (a) Shark (b) Ray
 116 BIOLOGY

beaches such as south-west pacific ocean

because of danger of killer sharks. This has led
to the establishment of elaborate protective
(a) measures, including aerial patrols, on eastern
Australian beaches. The man-eating great white
shark attains a length of more than 12 m. The
jaws of shark are famous for very strong
backwardly directed acrodont teeth (teeth
attached to jaw bone). The skin is tough and
covered with scales. Unlike bony fishes, sharks
do not possess a swim bladder, the air sac, which,
regulate buoyancy. Due to this reason sharks
(b) have to swim constantly else they will sink to
the bottom. Sharks are viviparous and bring forth
their young alive. The liver of shark is a rich
source of vitamin A. Skates and rays are
equipped with specialized organs. For example,
Torpedo (electric ray) possesses electric organs
as modified musculature between eyes and
pectoral fins. Electric organs are capable of
generating strong electric shock to paralyse the
prey. Trygon, the stingray possesses a poison
sting on its tail. The poison so released is strong
enough to stun an animal.
Examples
(c)
Scoliodon (Dog fish), Scyllium (Shark), Torpedo
(electric ray), Trygon (sting ray) and Pristis (Saw
fish).
Class Osteichthyes — There are about 25,000
species in the class Osteichthyes. The
characteristic feature of these fishes is bony
endoskeleton, the skin is covered by cycloid
scales. In contrast to cartilaginous fishes, bony
fishes occur in fresh as well as marine waters,
from the deep sea to tiny ponds. A variety of
shapes and sizes is demonstrated by bony fishes
(Fig.6.21). Because of their decorative shapes
and colours, many freshwater bony fishes are
maintained in aquaria in homes. Most fishes
(d) used as food are bony fishes. The common Indian
fresh water fishes which are used as food are
catla, rohu, mrigal, kalbasu, and the marine
fishes used in food are pomfret, Bombay duck
and Indian salmon. Bony fishes use pectoral,
pelvic, dorsal, anal and caudal (tail fin) fins in
(e) swimming. In the flying fish (Exocoetus), the
pectoral fin is large and modified to use for gliding
several metres in the air, as the fish leaps out of
water. A swim bladder is present which helps in
Fig. 6.21 Bony fishes : (a) Flying fish (b) Flat fish buoyancy. As a result, a bony fish can stay at a
(c) Sea horse (d) Eel (e) Angler fish particular depth without expending energy in
 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 117

swimming, contrary to the cartilaginous fishes. the larval stage (tadpole) these are fish-like,
Because of their great variety in shape and size it swimming in water using a tail. After completion
is difficult to give description of a bony fish using of larval stage they metamorphose into adults.
a single example. The general features including Adults are morphologically different from their
arrangement of fins and position of swim bladder tadpoles. The adults live on land. For breeding,
in a common bony fish is shown in Fig. 6.22. they require a watery environment because
fertilisation is nor mally exter nal. So
(a)
amphibians, though generally adapted to life on
Gill cover Dorsal fin land, have to be near water to complete their
Snout Tail fin life cycle. They move using two pairs of limbs
that contain four digits on the fore limb and five
digits on the hind limb. Body is divided into head
and trunk; there is no neck. The amphibian skin
is moist and naked (without scales). The eyes
have eyelids. A tympanum is present in place of
Pectoral fin Pelvic fin external ear. Alimentary canal, urinary and
reproductive tracts open into a common
chamber, the cloaca, which opens to the exterior
through an aperture called vent. The heart of
(b)
frogs and toads is three-chambered. This is an
advance over the two-chambered heart found
Swim bladder
in fishes. It receives blood separately from the
lungs and the rest of the body, but pumps a
mixture of both oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood through a single ventricle.
These are cold-blooded (poikilothermous)
animals with double occipital condyle and ten
pairs of cranial nerves. Respiration in the tadpoles
of frogs and toads and some urodeles take place
by gills. After metamorphosis adults develop lungs
which help in respiration. Some newts retain gills
Fig. 6.22 (a) External features of a bony fish even in adult life. Sexes are separate, fertilisation
(b) Internal position of swim bladder is external and development through tadpole
larva occurs in the aquatic environment. A
Fishes breed generally by laying eggs, and common Indian toad is shown in Fig. 6.23.
fertilization is external. A primitive form of nest
building for laying eggs, and the care of eggs till
hatching are exhibited by some species of fishes.
In the sea horse, the males have a brood pouch,
where eggs laid by the female, remain till they
hatch.
Examples
Labeo (Rohu), Catla (Katla), Lates (Bhetki),
Puntius (Punti fish), Heteropneustis (Singhi),
Clarius (Magur), Anabus (Koi), Channa (Lata
fish), Exocoetus (Flying fish), Remora (Sucker
fish), Echeneis (Sucker fish), Lophius (Angler fish)
and Hippocampus (Sea horse).
Class Amphibia — This includes about 3,000
species. As their name indicates, most
amphibians have two phases in their lives. At Fig. 6.23 Common Indian Toad
 118 BIOLOGY

Examples
Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog),
(a) Rhacophorus (Flying frog), Alytes (Midwife toad)
Necturus, Salamandra (Salamander, Ambystoma
(Salamander), Trilototriton (Indian salamander)
and Ichthyophis (Limbless amphibian).
Class Reptilia — There are only about 6,000
living species of reptiles in the world. Most
present-day forms are low statured animals,
often crawling around and therefore named
as reptile (Figs. 6.24, 6.25). Body of reptiles is
covered by dry and cornified skin that contains
epidermal scales or scutes and always contains
(b)
a post anal tail. Reptiles do not have external
ear openings. They can walk with two pairs of
limbs, absent in snakes, each with five digits
(pentadactyl). These ar e cold-blooded
(poikilothermous) animals with single occipital
condyle and twelve pairs of cranial nerves. The
heart is three-chambered and contains two
auricles and one incompletely divided
ventricle (completely divided in crocodiles).
Anal apertur e is transverse, except in
(c) chelones and crocodiles. Most present-day
reptiles are carnivores or insectivores. A few
tortoises are herbivores. Snakes and lizards
shed their scales as skin cast. Two features
make reptiles truly land animals. One is the
development of internal fertilization. The
second is t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s p e c i al
membrane, amnion, around the developing
embryo.

(d)

(e)

Fig. 6.24 Reptiles (a) Common tortoise (b) Crocodile

(c) Indian gharial (d) Monitor (Indian goh)
(e) Tyranosaurus (extinct giant reptile) Fig. 6.25 Naja naja
 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 119

Examples eggs resemble reptilian eggs in general design

Chelone (Turtle), T rionyx (Turtle), Testudo with a calcareous shell. Indian sub-continent is
(Tortoise), Sphenodon (Lizard - an example of rich in avian fauna. Some common Indian birds
Living fossil), Hemidactylus (House lizard), are shown in Fig. 6.26.
Chameleon (Tree lizard), Calotes (Garden lizard), The forelimbs of birds are modified into wings
Draco (Flying lizard), Anguis (Limbless lizard), (Fig. 6.27). The forelimbs contain three claw less
Phrynosoma (Horned-toad), Varanus (Monitor), digits whereas the hind limbs have four digits
Python (Mayal), Naja (Cobra, Kautia), Crocodilus with claws. The hind limbs are modified for
(Crocodile), Alligator (Alligator) and Gavialis walking, swimming or clasping the tree branches.
(Gharial). Presence of oil glands at the base of the tail and
Class Aves — The class has about 9000 species there is no other gland on the skin. The long
of easily recognisable birds. Their characteristic bones of the endoskeleton are hollow and
features are the presence of feathers and the connected by air passages. This reduces the
power of flight. There are very few birds, which weight of the body. They have single occipital
have either wholly or partly lost the ability to condyle and twelve pairs of cranial nerves. Birds
fly. Some examples are emu, ostrich and are warm-blooded (homiothermous) and maintain
cassowary. Birds have a reptilian ancestry. a high metabolic rate and a constant body
Birds possess scales on their hind limbs. Their temperature. The heart is four-chambered. This

Fig. 6.26 Common Indian birds : (a) Pheasant (b) Bulbul (c) Owl (d) Koel (e) Parrot (f) Peafowl
(g) Vulture (h) Hornbill (i) Crane (j) Spoonbill (k) Hoopoe (l) Swan
 120 BIOLOGY

Nostril
Beak
Throat

Wings

Quill
feathers
Ankle
Foot

Fig. 6.28 Egg laying mammal - Platypus

Fig. 6.27 External features of a bird

allows complete separation of the oxygenated

blood from the deoxygenated . Respiration
is by lungs that contain air sacs.
Birds have no teeth; beak helps in feeding
in many ways such as seed crushing, fruit
scooping, flesh tearing, nectar sipping, wood
chiseling and so on. The digestive tract has
additional chambers, the crop and gizzard.
The crop stores and soften s food. The
muscular gizzard helps in crushing and
churning the food. Birds have good sense
of sight. This is required to forage food, prey,
landmarks and resting places from a height
while flying. The brain is well-developed,
particularly the regions concerned with the Fig. 6.29 Kangaroo with its young in pouch
co-ordination of movement and balance.
Birds lay large sized and yolky eggs
(oviparous).
Examples
Ardea (Grey heron), Corvus (Crow), Pavo (Peafowl),
Gallus (Fowl), Alcedo (King-fisher) Columba
(Pigeon), Psittacula (Parrot), Bubo (Owl),
Phoenicopterus (Flemingo), Aqurilla (Eagle),
Neophron (Vulture), Milvus (Kites) and Struthio
(Ostrich).
Class Mammalia — There are about 4,000
species of mammals found in the world.
Mammals are perhaps the most successful and
dominant animals today (Figs. 6.28-6.33).
They thrive in variety of environments of the
world – polar ice caps, deserts, oceans,
mountains, forests, grasslands and dark-
caves. The most unique mammalian
characteristic is the milk-producing mammary
Fig. 6.30 Insectivores : (a) Mole (b) Hedgehog
 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 121

(a)

Fig. 6.31 Flying mammal- Bat

(b)

Fig. 6.32 Whale (c)

glands by which the young ones are nourished.

The skin of mammals is unique in possessing
hair. External ears or pinnae are present in most
mammals, which are not found in other groups
of animals. Teeth are present in sockets. Such
teeth are called thecodont. They are variously
modified into incisors, canines, premolars and
molars for the type of food ingested (heterodont). (d)
Mammals have a set of milk teeth, which are
replaced by permanent teeth (diphyodont). A
four-chambered heart ensures a continuous
supply of oxygenated blood to all parts of the
body. The lungs are well-developed. Breathing
is enhanced by the muscular diaphragm, which
separates the chest cavity from the abdomen.
Mammals are generally terrestrial, found in a (e)
variety of habitats. Some mammals, however,
have adapted to fly, for example bat (Fig.6.31),
and live in water, for example whale (Fig 6.32).
The most advanced mammals are primates
(Fig. 6.33). We, being the mammals, dominate
the world. The reasons being the most developed
ability of speech through language, opposable Fig. 6.33 Some primates (a) Lemur (b) Tarsier Simians
thumb and logical thinking. (c) Monkey (d) Orang-utan (e) Gorilla (ape)
122 BIOLOGY

SUMMARY

Over a million different kinds of organisms have been reported and many more are yet to
be discovered. The study of these organisms had been facilitated through classification
which was based earlier on their morphology, and subsequently on natural relationships.
Presently, evidences from comparative anatomy, embryology and palaeontology are being
effectively used to derive taxonomic relationships. The heterotrophic mode of nutrition has
been an important factor in causing great diversity and behavioural pattern. There are
different grades of organisation and body plan, symmetry, body cavity, movement and
reproduction are the features used in classification.
The members of the Phylum Protozoa are acellular or unicellular animals which may be
free-living, parasitic or symbiotic. These do not have distinct organs but cell organelles are
present. Porifera has multicellular organisms without any tissue level of organisation but
with characteristic flagellated collar cells. The body is perforated with numerous Ostia.
The Cnidaria have special tentacles in the mouth and are mostly aquatic, being sessile or
free-floating. Ctenophores are marine animals with transparent, flat or oval body shape.
The Platyhelminthes exhibit a bilaterally symmetrical body which is flattened dorsoventrally.
Their parasitic forms show distinct suckers and hooks. The Nemathelminthes includes
parasitic as well as non-parasitic round worms. The Annelids are metamerically segmented
animals with a true coelom. The Mollusca have a soft body surrounded by an external,
calcareous shell. Respiration occurs in them by gills, lungs or through body surface. The
arthropods have jointed appendages with an open type of blood vascular system, simple or
compound eyes and body covered with the external skeleton made of chitin. This is the
most successful group of animals.
The echinoderms possess a spiny skin with calcareous plates. These have long, movable
spines, a mouth on the lower side and an anus on the upper side. Their most distinctive
features are: presence of a water vascular system, excretion partly by diffusion through the
body and partly by amoeboid cells in the coelomic fluid, occurrence of five pairs of sex
organs, one pair per arm, and fertilisation in open water.
The Chordata includes the group of animals which possess a notochord either throughout
or during early embryonic life. Their common features are a dorsal, hollow nerve chord
and paired gill slits. Further, members of the Classes Cyclostomata, Chondrichthyes and
Osteichthyes bear fins for locomotion. The members of remaining four classes, the Amphibia,
Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia, move with the help of four limbs and are called tetrapoda.
Cyclostomata, the most primitive notochords, are parasites on fishes. The Chondrichthyes
include all marine fishes with cartilaginous endoskeleton. Of these, the sharks are fast
swimming predators. These are viviparous and bring forth their young alive. The torpedo
(electric ray) is capable of generating electric shock to paralyse the prey. The amphibians
which are only freshwater have two phases in their lives. At the larval stage these are fish-
like and swim in water using their tail, whereas, the adults live on land and move about
using four limbs. The body of reptiles is covered by dry and cornified skin. They can walk
with two pairs of limbs, absent in snakes, each with five digits. The two features which
make reptiles truly land animals are: development of internal fertilisation and presence of
amnion – a special membrane around the developing embryo. The birds are warm blooded
animals with their fore-limbs modified into wings for flying and the hind limbs with four
digits adapted for perching, walking or swimming. The mammals have a body divisible into
head, neck, trunk and tail. Their other important features include body covered with hair,
presence of external ear, presence of mammary glands, and the foetus (embryo) being
nourished by the mother through a placenta.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 123

EXERCISES

1. Fill in the blanks:

(i) Variability of animal ___________ has greatly helped in their classification.
(ii) Heterotrophic mode of nutrition is an important factor in causing great diversity
in the _____________ of animal structure.
(iii) Fertilisation results in the formation of _________ zygote.
(iv) The digestive cavity of Hydra has only ________ opening for both ingestion and
egestion.
(v) Radial symmetry means that the body of the animal may be divided into _________
equal halves.
2. Define metamerism.
3. Outline the role of coelom in animals.
4. The absence of locomotory organs in a number of protozoans has led them to acquire
free-living and holotrophic mode of life. Comment.
5. Justify: “Conjugation is the first and clear evidence of sexual reproduction”.
6. Discuss the various modes of asexual reproduction in animals.
7. Which of the following forms lining of canals of sponges:
(a) Flagellated cells (b) Flattened cells
(d) Both flagellated and flattened cells (d) None of the above.
8. The body wall of Hydra is:
(a) Monoblastic (b) Diploblastic
(c) Triploblastic (d) Polyblastic
9. The digestive tract of nematodes is differentiated into:
(a) Mouth and intestine (b) Mouth and pharynx
(c) Mouth, pharynx and intestine (d) Mouth, pharynx, intestine and anus
10. Hirudinaria and Pheretima are the representative of the phylum:
(a) Cnidaria (b) Platyhelminthes
(c) Annelida (d) Nemathelminthes
11. The insects are able to survive on land in almost any environment due to
(a) Presence of a chitinous cuticle (b) A tough covering on the body
(c) Impermeability to water (d) All the above features
12. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
(a) The millipedes possess 70 to 100 pairs of legs.
(b) The body of the molluscs is hard but is covered by a soft shell.
(c) The fertilization in majority of echinoderms occurs in open water.
(d) The echinoderms do not show any fundamental similarities with chordates.
124 BIOLOGY

13. Give special features of a typical bird.

14. List any five members of the Avian flora of the Indian Subcontinent.
15. Justify the statement “Mammals are the most successful and dominant animals today”.
16. Although generally terrestrial, the mammals are found in a variety of habitats. Support
the statement with the help of suitable example.