STRUCTURAL THEORY Planning Phase: Decide the layout,
structure type, materials, and
Chapter 1: Introduction to Structural Theory
aesthetics to create an economical
Introduction and functional design.
Structure Preliminary Design: Estimate the sizes
of structural parts using experience,
A structure refers to a system of connected codes, and basic analysis.
parts used to support a load. Important
examples related to civil engineering include Load Estimation: Determine all forces
buildings, bridges, and towers; and in other (e.g., dead, live, wind) acting on the
branches of engineering, ship and aircraft structure.
frames, tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical
Structural Analysis: Analyze the
systems, and electrical supporting structures
structure to find stresses, forces, and
are important.
deflections in its members.
Structural Elements
Safety Checks: Ensure the design
Structural elements refer to the key meets safety and usability standards
components (individual member) of a as per codes.
building, structure, or system that provide
Revised Design: Adjust member sizes
stability, strength, and functionality. Example:
and repeat steps if safety or code
Beams, Columns, Foundations, Walls, Slabs,
standards are not met.
Roof, Braces.
Structural Analysis
Structural Engineering
Structural analysis is the prediction of the
Structural engineering is the science and art of
performance of a given structure under
planning, designing, and constructing safe and
prescribed loads and/or other external effects,
economical structures that will serve their
such as support movements and temperature
intended purposes.
changes.
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies - The
discussion of this course generally
encompasses stresses
experienced by the structural member due to
applied loads.
Structural Theory - The discussion of this
course generally encompasses stability and
determinacy of structures, and deflection and
rotation sustained by the structural member
due to applied loads.
Loads and Load Combinations NSCP 2015
Load
In engineering, a load is any force, pressure, or
combination of forces that a structure or
system must support or resist.
Classifications of Loads based on the structure itself (e.g., beams, walls, and
following: other fixed components).
A. Duration of the Loading 2. Live Loads (L): Temporary or
dynamic forces that vary over time,
B. Spatial Distribution of the Loading
such as people, furniture, or vehicles.
C. Temporal Distribution
3. Wind Load (W): Forces exerted by
D. Source of the Loading wind.
A. Duration of the Loading 4. Snow Load (S): Weight of
accumulated snow or ice on a
1. Permanent Loads structure.
2. Temporary Loads. 5. Earthquake Load (E): Vibrational
B. Spatial Distribution of the Loading forces from seismic activity.
Spatial distribution of the loads implies that 6. Rain Load (R): Accumulated water
the space in which the load acts. weight.
1. Concentrated Loads NSCP 2015: Load Combinations
2. Uniformly Distributed NSCP 2015 Basic Load Combinations:
3. Varying Loads (1) 1.4 D
4. Couple (2) 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or R)
Concentrated Load, Uniformly Distributed (3) 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (L or 0.5W)
Load, Varying Load (4) 1.2D + 1.0W + L + 0.5(Lr or R)
C. Temporal Distribution (5) 1.2D + 1.0E + L
It is the rate of change in the magnitude of the (6) 0.9D + 1.0W
load.
(7) 0.9D + 1.0E
1. Static loads - independent of time
and the magnitude of the load does
not change with
respect to time.
2. Dynamic Loads - time-variant loads.
It changes its magnitude with respect
to time.
a. Impact Load: Sudden force due to
collisions or drops.
b. Cyclic Load: Repeatedly applied and
removed forces causing fatigue.
D. Source/Types of the Loading
1. Dead Loads (D): Permanent or static
forces due to the weight of the
Types of Supports Structural stability refers to a structure's
ability
to
maintain its integrity, resist collapse, and
remain in equilibrium when subjected to
Stability of structures applied forces or disturbances.
TYPES OF STABILITY
A. INTERNAL STABILITY – a structure is
internally stable it maintains its shape and
remains rigid when all external supports are
removed. Otherwise, it is internally unstable.
B. EXTERNAL STABILITY – a structure is
externally stable if the following conditions
are satisfied:
1. Number of unknowns (external +
internal) must be greater than or
equal to the
number of equilibrium conditions.
Introduction to Cables
2. External reactions must not be
Cable
parallel to each other.
A cable is a flexible structural component that
3. External reactions must not be
offers no resistance when compressed or bent
concurrent.
in a curved shape.
Cable Structure
Cable structure is a form of long-span
structure that is subject to tension and uses
suspension cables for support.
Types of Cable Structures
Determinacy of Structures
A. Suspension Type Cables
Determinacy of a structure refers to the
ability to calculate the internal forces (such as B. Stayed Type Cables
moments, shear forces, and axial forces) and
reactions of a structure using only the Suspension Type Cables
principles of static equilibrium. A suspension system uses main cables that are
If the number of unknowns exceed the suspended between tall towers.
number of equilibrium equations, the These main cables carry the load to the
structure becomes statically indeterminate. towers and are anchored at both ends.
Vertical or near-vertical suspenders connect
the main cables to the bridge deck.
Stayed Type Cables
A stayed cable system uses multiple cables
that connect directly from the towers to the
bridge deck, bypassing the need for main
cables. These cables can be arranged in
various patterns.
Analysis of Determinate Arches
Three-hinged
Among the three types of arches, the only
Analysis of Determinate Cable Structure determinate arch is the three-hinged arch.
Determinate Cable Structure
A determinate cable structure is a cable-
supported system where the forces in the
cables can be calculated directly using basic
equations of equilibrium (without needing
complex analysis).
Introduction to Arches
Arches
Arches are curved structures designed to span
an opening and support loads above it. They
work by distributing the weight of the load
evenly outward and downward along the
curve, transferring the force to supports called
abutments at either end.
Arches primarily work in compression.
Types of Arches
Based on their geometry, arches can be
classified as semicircular, segmental, or
pointed. Based on the number of internal
hinges, they can be further classified as two-
hinged arches, three-hinged arches, or fixed
arches.