Welcome Back to School !!!

Week 1 & 2

TOPIC: DRAWING PRACTICE: DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND

MATERIALS.

CONTENT:

DEFINITION OF TECHNICAL DRAWING

Technical drawing is a universal language used for communication among technical

people. Technical people are the engineers, technicians, builders, draughts men, etc.

It is the language expressed in terms of graphical illustrations which convey the idea
of the shape, size and other features of engineering components used in the
manufacturing and construction industries.

We study drawing so that we can draw objects for people to see and understand what
we have in mind without talking or writing too muc

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS I

A good and accurate drawing can be made through constant practice with the aid of
drawing instruments and materials.

Below are some examples:

1. Drawing board
2. Tee square
3. Compass
4. Divider
5. Drawing paper
6. Sharpener
7. Drawing pencil
8. Adhesive tape
9. Eraser
10. Emery cloth
11. Glass paper

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS II

Other lists of drawing instruments and materials which are made up of acrylic
(transparent plastic) include:

1. Set squares (300 by 600 and 450 by 450)

2. Protractor
3. Scale rule
4. Metric rule
5. French curve
6. Template
7. Lettering set

CARE AND STORAGE OF DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS

Drawing board

1. Do not use pins for fastening your paper to the board, rather use tapes or clips
2. Do not use a razor blade to cut something on the surface.
3. Always cover the surface with cardboard.
4. Keep the drawing board in a safe place.

TEE SQUARE

1. Never use the tee square as a walking stick.

2. Do not use a pen knife or blade along the edge of the tee square.
3. Always hang your tee square after use.
4. Always keep your tee square clean.

SET SQUARE, SCALE RULE, PROTRACTOR

1. Do not use any sharp object on them.

2. Keep them away from fire.
3. Always keep them in a safe place after use.

WEEK 3 & 4

TOPIC: BOARD PRACTICES AND SCALE DRAWING

CONTENT

Board practice is the act of learning how to use drawing instrument on drawing board
to draw vertical, horizontal, incline lines etc., in order to display good board practice,
it is necessary to use the appropriate drawing instruments which includes the
following: 1. Drawing board 2. Tee-square 3. Set-square [Link] of compasses
[Link] [Link] 7. HB, 2H pencil 8. Eraser
SETTING UP THE BOARD

Step 1 Place the drawing board conveniently on the table with the square edge to the
left-hand side.

Step 2 Place the drawing paper on the board, leaving equal space all round.

Step 3 Place the tee-square on the paper, and gently slide or move the tee-square to
the top edge of the paper.

Step 4 Set the top edge of the paper parallel to the edge of the tee-square, with the
stock of the tee- square firmly against the edge of the drawing board on the left-hand
side.

Step 5. Gently slide the tee-square down without moving the paper.

Step 6 Cut of pieces of adhesives tape to hold the paper in position, and place them
over the four corners of the paper.

DRAWING OF LINES

All horizontal lines are drawn with the aid of tee-square, usually from left to right,
and rotating the pencil as the line is drawn. This ensures uniform thickness of the line.

The set-square is used sitting on the tee-square to draw upright or vertical lines on the
paper. Angled lines are also drawn with the set-square turned in different directions.

POSITIONING OF TITLE BLOCK

Title block is at the bottom right-hand corner of the drawing which consist of the
following information (a) Title of Drawing (b) Name of object (c) School (d) Scale (e)
Date

The title block should be lettered free-hand in single stroke capitals. The two types of
lettering are vertical and inclined. Only one method of lettering should be used.
Week 5

TOPIC: FREEHAND SKETCHING

CONTENT

Freehand Sketching is one of the quickest methods by which the shape of an object
can be communicated to others. This is done by using a pen or pencil.

Architects think more of imaginary objects; they cannot take photographs but express
this using freehand sketching.

Therefore, the knowledge of freehand sketching is of advantage. A good sketch

reduces the task of writing needed to describe the object on the mind of the designer.
The ability to make a freehand sketching is a valuable asset acquired through practice.

SKETCHING A STRAIGHT LINE

A straight line can be defined as the shortest distance between two points.

Straight line can be sketched following the procedures below:

1. Put a dash or dot far enough to the right-hand side of the paper.

2. Start to draw a line from the left hand side to join the dash or dot with your eyes
fixed on the point.

………………..

SKETCHING: A CURVE AND CIRCLE

1. Curve: To draw a curve by freehand, it will be necessary to plot some points

not too far from each other at different levels like this :

With the points in position, attempt to draw curves to join them.

Week 6

TOPIC: SCALE

Some objects are too big for the actual size to be contained on a drawing paper, while
some are too small for the parts to be clearly seen. Hence, such objects should be
drawn to an appropriate scale.
Scale is usually given as a ratio and they are stated in the title block.

TYPES OF SCALE DRAWING

A scale is used to draw or read a scale on a drawing paper

We have the following scales:

1. Full scale drawing

2. Reduced scale drawing
3. Enlarged scale drawing

FULL SCALE DRAWING: In this scale drawing, the object is drawn to the same
size with the actual size. e.g. 1:1

REDUCED SCALE DRAWING: The actual size of the object is reduced in

proportion to the drawing. Reduced scale drawing is used when the object is too big,
examples include 1:2 , 1:5 ,1:10 , 1:50 ,1:100

Therefore a cupboard of size 1800mm long drawn as 18mm has a reduced scale
drawing of 1:100mm

ENLARGED SCLAE DRAWING: This is used when the object to be drawn is too
small to be clearly seen .Here, the actual size of the object is enlarged in the
proportion to the drawing.

Week 7

TOPIC: WORKBENCH FITTINGS & APPLIANCES

CONTENTS

WOODWORK BENCH

A woodwork bench is a platform on which the wood workers perform their wood
workers activities.

The size of the woodwork bench is usually 2.0m by 0.80m by 0.90m. The centre of
the woodwork bench is always lower than the edges and this is called WELL.
The function of the well is for keeping the tools needed during the woodwork
activities. Being lower, tools cannot fall or roll onto the floor or on anyone’s feet

WOODWORK BENCH FITTINGS

Woodwork bench fittings are the appliances fitted to the workbench before the
commencement of any woodwork operation.

Workbench fittings include the following:

1. VICE
2. BENCH STOP
3. BENCH HOOK
4. G-CLAMP
5. SASH CLAMP
6. F-CLAMP

VICE: The bench vice is made up of cast iron and possesses a release lever, which
allows quick movement and grip. The vice is fixed to the side of the [Link] is used
to hold the wood firmly to side of the workbench.

BENCH STOP: This is a small strip of wood or metal fixed on top of the [Link] is
used prevent wood from slipping off the bench top during planning.

BENCH HOOK: This is used for holding jobs during cutting chiseling on the bench.
At the same it protects the bench top.

G-CLAMP: This is a metal clamp used for clamping small jobs to the bench while
sawing or chiseling. It can also be used to hold other small jobs together. It is called a
G-clamp because of its shape, which is in the form of letter “G

The clamp is ideal for holding small pieces of wood together by applying pressure at a
specific point. Scrap wood should be placed between the jaws and the work to prevent
it from leaving marks in the work.

SASH CLAMP: This is a larger clamp used for holding and drawing wood together
when assembling or gluing work light and heavy-duties types are also available.
When using sash –clamp, a piece of waste wood should also be placed between the
jaw will dig in and spoil the work.
F-CLAMP: This is used like the G-clamp. It has a quick action [Link]
clamp in the form of letter “F”

WEEK 8

TOPIC: TYPES OF BUILDINGS & BUILDING MATERIALS

CONTENT

Meaning of building

“Building”- A structure constructed with any materials whatsoever for any purpose,
whether used for human habitation or not, and includes:-

i) Foundation, plinth, walls, floors, roofs, chimneys, plumbing and building

services, fixed platforms etc.

ii) ii) Verandahs, balconies, cornices, projections etc.

Types of building

 Bungalow: It is dwelling built in a style developed from that of a form of rural

house in India. The original bungalow typically has one story, few rooms, and a
maximum of cross drafts, with high ceilings, unusually large window and door
openings, and verandas on all sides to shade the rooms from the intense light and
tropical heat. A house that is built on one level.
 One-storey building: A house that has a ground floor and the first floor only.
 Multi-storey building: A house that has many levels.
 Skyscrapers: A very tall building.
 Detached building: A house that is joined with another building at one side.
 Semi-Detached building: A house that is joined with another building at one
side.
 Duplex: A house that is made up of two apartments.
 Mansion: A very large house.
 Terraced houses: These are blocks of building that are constructed together
side by side.

COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS

Building materials could be natural or man-made and can be classified into:

1. Primary/non-convectional materials: These are materials used for
constructing buildings in their natural state without any processing. They are also
known as traditional materials e.g. mud, stone, grass, straw, timber etc.

 Secondary/convectional materials: These are materials that have

undergone processing and have changed in structure [Link], steel, bricks,
precast concrete, glass, etc.

Materials used in building construction

Building Element Primary materials Secondary material

1. Foundation Mud, Stone Sand-Crete blocks
2. Wall Mud, Stone, timber, Sand-Crete blocks, red bricks
bamboo, mud bricks
3. Wall decoration Animal dung, local dye, Cement plaster, paints, tiles
cowries
4. Roof Bamboo, forest wood, Seasoned timber, planks, nails
corrugated metal sheets
5. Ceiling Mat, asbestos Asbestos, plywood, plaster of
Paris (P.O.P)
6. Floor Mud, cement screed Concrete
7. Window Timber, mat Glass, aluminum, metal,
timber
8 Doors Wood/planks Plywood, timber, metal
9. Wall Shelve Forest wood Timber, plywood, glass
10. Lintel Thick timber Concrete with iron rod
11. Columns Wooden posts timber, Mud Concrete poles with
bricks reinforcement

WEEK NINE

TOPIC: RENEWABLE ENERGY

Energy is the amount of force or power when applied can move one object from one
position to another or Energy defines the capacity of a system to do work. Energy
exists in everybody whether they are human beings or animals or non living things for
e.g.: Jet, Light, Machines etc.

What are the Sources of Energy?

Energy is broadly classified into two main groups: Renewable and Non-renewable.

Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is the energy which is generated from natural sources i.e. sun,
wind, rain, tides and can be generated again and again as and when required. They are
available in plenty and by far the most cleanest sources of energy available on this
planet. E.g. energy that we receive from the sun can be used to generate electricity.
Similarly, energy from wind, geothermal, biomass from plants, tides can be used to
fulfill our daily energy demands.

Non-Renewable Energy

Non-Renewable energy is the energy which is taken from the sources that are
available on the earth in limited quantity and will vanish fifty-sixty years from now.
Non-renewable sources are not environmental friendly and can have serious affect on
our health. They are called non-renewable because they cannot be re-generated within
a short span of time. Non-renewable sources exist in the form of fossil fuels, natural
gas, oil and coal

ENERGY AND SOCIETY

Economic security is impacted by energy choices. Individuals and society continually

make energy choices that have economic consequences.

 Transportation can have negative consequences to the health, environment and

economics of a society.
 Relying on imported energy can create vulnerabilities to a nation's security.
The impacts of energy decisions are not equal for all people.
 Poor or marginalized societies are more likely to suffer negative consequences
of energy decisions because they have a reduced capacity for adaptation and they may
lack negotiating power compared to wealthy nations. However, vulnerable
populations can also benefit greatly from improvements in energy accessibility, safety
or affordability.
 The world is strongly dependent on energy from finite supplies of fossil fuels.
As demand increases and supply becomes scarce, the problem becomes more acute,
with potentially severe economic and social consequences. A large-scale transition
away from fossil energy poses a great challenge for society.

These consequences come in the form of monetary cost in general and in the form of
price fluctuation and instability specifically.

 People will be hungry, starvation will set in due to poor transportation in the
country
 Travelling, especially to overseas countries. It will not be easy because of lack
of aviation fuel
 Transportation of goods and services will be very hard for lack of petrol and
diesel. Solar energy can be used during the day time and not during night or rainy
season.

Energy generation has affected the quality of life in many ways:

1. Many self-employed depend on electricity for their works e.g. hairdressers,

tailors, welders.
2. The cost of production is increased in some companies when electricity supply
is poor.
3. Without electricity, radio and television may not be operated in some home
and people become uninformed.
4. Without electricity the refrigerator will not work, and it will be difficult to
preserve food.

YEAR 8

Week 1

TOPIC: GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION: LINES

CONTENT

LINES: A line is a long narrow mark made on a surface. A line may be straight,
crooked or curved.

Properties of lines
1. A line has position and length.
2. A line does not have width or thickness.
3. A straight line is the shortest distance between two points.
4. A line that has more than one curve is called a crooked line.
5. Two or more lines always having equal distance apart are parallel lines.
6. A line following a circular path is a curve.

TYPES OF LINES

Thick continuous line: This is a thick and solid line used to show visible outlines of
an object. They are also used as border lines (15mm from paper margin).

Thin continuous line: This is a thin and solid line used for dimension lines, lines,
projection lines, leader lines, hatching or section lines etc.

Short dashes: The dashes are about 3mm long and spaced about 1mm from each
other. These are approximate values and will depend on how large the drawing might
be. They are used to represent/show hidden details.

Thin continuous chain line: These are thin lines made of long and short dashes. The
long dashes can be about 19-38mm long while the short dashes may be about 1.5mm
long. The length will vary with the size of the drawing and the length of centre line
needed. They are used for centre lines.

Thick continuous chain with arrow head: They are thick lines made of either long
and short dashes or equal sized dashes. Arrow heads are drawn on their ends to show
the direction in which the section was taken. They are used for cutting and viewing
planes.

Division of a straight line into equal parts

A line can be divided into a number of equal parts. For example, a given line can be
divided into halves, fourths, eights etc.

Procedure 1

1. Draw the given line AB.

2. Draw AC any convenient acute angle and set off from A.
3. Divide the line into the number of the required parts using a pair of divider or
a scale rule and a pencil.
4. Now join the points on the inclined to the line to be divided from the extreme
with parallel lines.

Procedure 2
1. Draw the given line, AB.
2. Draw a line AC to meet it at any convenient angle.
3. Join CB.
4. Divide AC into the required number of parts using your ruler. Label the points
1,2,3,4…
5. From the points 1, 2, 3…. Draw lines parallel to CB to meet AB. These
parallel lines intersect AB at the required points; this divides AB into equal segments.

WEEK 2

TOPIC: GEOMETRIC SHAPES

CONTENT

QUADRILATERALS

Quadrilaterals are plane figures bounded by four straight lines. The sum of angles in a
quadrilateral is 3600. A straight line called the diagonal may join any two opposite
angular points.

Types of quadrilateral

1. Parallelogram: This is a quadrilateral with it’s opposite sides equal and

parallel.
2. Square: A square is a parallelogram, which has its entire sides equal
and each angle a right angle.
3. Rhombus: A rhombus is a parallelogram, which has its sides equal but
no angle is a right angle.
4. Rectangle: A rectangle is a parallelogram, which has each angle a right
angle.
5. Rhomboid: A rhomboid is a parallelogram, but no angle is right angled.

TOPIC: POLYGONS

CONTENT

What is a polygon?

A polygon is a plane figure with five or more straight sides. A polygon can either be
regular or irregular A polygon is said to be regular it all its sides are equal and its
angles are equal. An irregular polygon has unequal sides.

Types of polygons

1. Pentagon: A pentagon is a polygon with five sides.

2. Hexagon: A hexagon is a polygon with six sides
3. Heptagon: A heptagon is a polygon with seven sides.
4. Octagon: An octagon is a polygon with eight sides.
5. Nonagon: A nonagon is a polygon with nine sides.
6. Decagon: A decagon is a polygon with ten sides.

WEEK 3

TOPIC: AREA OF PLANE FIGURE

INTRODUCTION

Plane figures are flat two-dimensional shapes. The can be made of straight lines,
curved lines or both straight and curved lines. Examples of plane figures are: triangle,
square, parallelogram, circle, rectangle etc.

AREA OF PLANE FIGURES

When a plane figure is drawn, it occupies a certain amount of space. At times, it is

important to know the amount of space of a figure occupies, when it is drawn. This
way, it will be possible to draw a different shape that has the same amount of space
with it. Therefore, area of a plane figure can be defined as the space it occupies.

Area of a triangle

Area = ½ of (b x h) where b=base and h= vertical height

Area of a rectangle
Area= l x b where l= length and b= breadth

Area of a square

Area= a x a= a2 where a= length of side

THEOREMS

In construction regular plane figure of equal areas, some geometrical laws, generally
called theorems, are applied. For instance, the following are will be relevant to this
topic:

 Triangles on the same base and between the same parallels are equal in area.
 Triangles on equal bases and between the same parallels are equal in area.
 Parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallels are equal in
area.
 Parallelograms on equal base and between the same parallel are equal in area.
 A triangle on the same parallels with a parallelogram is half the area of the
parallelogram.
 If a triangle and a parallelogram are on equal bases and between the same
parallels, the triangle is half the area of the parallelogram
WEEK 4 & 5

TOPIC: WOODWORK MACHINES

CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

Wood work machine are machines used for processing wood and making the wood
ready for use. These machines are used for heavy woodwork operation and also for
mass production.

In the past, nearly all-sawing operations were carried out by hand: a lot of energy was
put into it and it was more time consuming. In modern days, various machines
through improved technology are now available.

WOODWORK MACHINES

Woodwork machines include the following:

1. Circular sawing machine

2. Surface planing
3. Thicknessing machine
4. Drill Press machine
5. Wood lathe
6. Band saw

Circular Sawing Machine: This is a woodworking machine used to re-saw or

prepares timber into suitable sizes for articles of joinery, furniture e.t.c. Circular saws
include the ripsaw and cross cut saw. Other special purpose saw and are fitted onto
the machine as their uses arises include upper saw, hollow ground saw, ground-off
saw, wobble saw or drunken saw, novelty saw, planer saw.

There are other sawing machines that can do the same job as circular sawing machine
does a hand feed bench type with tilting arbor, and rise and fall attachment would be
most suitable.

Band Sawing machine: This is a wood working machine having a compensating

arrangement of a band saw that allows the upper pulley to move up and down and
adjust to the changes in the saw and keep the tension of the blade constant.

Surface Planing Machine: This is a woodworking machine that enables the sawn
timber to be planed to remove marks thus ensuring a flat [Link] is the most
laborious operations in woodworking. The introduction of the planing machines
enables construction of pieces to be planed to the required thickness joining edge to
edge.

Surface planing machine is used for truing up the edges, removing the marks and for
removing the “wind or twist” on the face of the wood.

Thicknessing Machine: This is a woodworking machine that is used exclusively for

planing wood to a specific thickness after surface planing operation.

In order to achieve a perfect operation, the front table is pulled backwards from the
cutter block to allow the wood chips fly out.

The Drill Press: This another wood working machine, which can also be used as
machine tools, used for performing various operations such as boring, sanding and
mortising.

Wood Lathe Machine: This is a wood working machine, which can be used for
metal working operations, employed where a number of turning will be made.

Generally, turning can be made on the lathe in two ways i.e. between centres and the
faceplate- both inside and outside. The lathe bed must be sturdy. The headstock runs
on double bearing which may be directly driven with about four speeds

WEEK 6 & 7

TOPIC: METALWORK MACHINES

CONTENT

Metalwork machines are machines used for metal work operations. The various types
of metalwork machines include the following:

1. Shaping machine
2. Planing machine
3. Milling machine
4. Grinding machine
5. The drill press
6. The lathe machine

The milling machine

A milling machine is a machine tool used to machinesolid materials. Milling

machines are often classed in two basic forms, horizontal and vertical, which refers to
the orientation of the main spindle. Both types range in size from small, bench-
mounted devices to room-sized machines. Unlike a drill press, which holds the
workpiece stationary as the drill moves axially to penetrate the material, milling
machines also move the workpiece radially against the rotating milling cutter, which
cuts on its sides as well as its tip. Workpiece and cutter movement are precisely
controlled to less than 0.001 in (0.025mm), usually by means of precision ground
slides and leadscrewsor analogous technology. Milling machines may be manually
operated, mechanically automated, or digitally automated via computer numerical
control(CNC).

Milling machines can perform a vast number of operations, from simple (e.g., slot and
keyway cutting, planing, drilling) to complex (e.g., contouring, diesinking). Cutting
fluid is often pumped to the cutting site to cool and lubricate the cut and to wash away
the resulting swarf.

Planing machine (Planer)

Metal-cutting machine tool in which the work piece is firmly attached to a horizontal
table that moves back and forth under a single-point cutting tool. The tool-holding
device is mounted on a cross rail so that the tool can be moved across the table in
small sideward movements. Since the cutting tool can be moved at almost any angle,
a wide variety of grooves and surfaces can be generated. Mechanical planers, or
surfacers, are also used to smooth wood to an even thickness. Planers perform the
same operations as shapers but can machine work pieces up to 50 ft (15 m) long.

A machine for the shaping of long, flat, or flat contoured surfaces by reciprocating the
work piece under a stationary single-point tool or tools.

Milling machine

This is a machine tool that rotates a circular tool with numerous cutting edges
arranged symmetrically about its axis, called a milling cutter. The metal work piece is
usually held in a vise clamped to a table that can move in three perpendicular
directions. Cutters of many shapes and sizes are available for a wide variety of milling
operations. Milling machines cut flat surfaces, grooves, shoulders, inclined surfaces,
dovetails, and T-slots. Various form-tooth cutters are used for cutting concave forms
and convex grooves, for rounding corners, and for cutting gear teeth.

A machine for the removal of metal by feeding a work piece through the periphery of
a rotating circular cutter. It is known as miller.

The drill press

This is m machine tool for producing holes in hard substances. The drill is held in a
rotating spindle and is fed into the work piece, which is usually clamped in
a vise supported on a table. The drill may be gripped in a chuck with three jaws that
move radially in unison, or it may have a tapered shank that fits into a tapered hole in
the spindle. Means are provided for varying the spindle speed and (on some
machines) for automatically feeding the drill into the work piece. See also boring
machine. A drilling machine, in which a vertical drill, moves into the work, which is
stationary.

The lathe machine

Lathe (lāth), machine tool for holding and turning metal, wood, plastic, or other
material against a cutting tool to form a cylindrical product or part. It also drills,
bores, polishes, grinds, makes threads, and performs other operations. Its principal
parts are the headstock (attached to the bed or base of the machine), which holds one
end of the material in a rotating spur; the tailstock, which holds the other end, moves
along the bed, and can be clamped in position at any point; the cutting tool; and the
power feed, comprising the drive and its motive parts.

Lathe: A machine for shaping, boring, facing, or cutting a screw thread in metal,
wood, etc., in which the work piece is turned about a horizontal axis against a fixed
tool. The lathe machine is regarded as the father of all machine tools because apart
from being used for turning cylindrical surface (external and internal) it can perform
other operations which are peculiar to other machines.

Thus, it is possible to carry out the following operations on the lathe machine:

 Turning (production of cylindrical of flat such as plumb bulb, centre punch)

 Facing (production of flat surfaces)
 Screw cutting (external and internal)
 Grinding (external and internal)
 Slotting
 Taper turning (production of conical surface )

Parts of the lathe machine

1. Bed: This provides a plane surface for mounting and moving

accessories at a constant level.
2. Head stock: This holds the main spindle and houses the arrangement
for driving and speed variation
3. Main spindle: This rotates the work and transmits movement to saddle.
4. Tailstock: It is used to support work being turned between centres.
5. Saddle and cross slide: These are used for mounting the tool for
cylindrical work.
6. Lead screw: Moves the saddle at rates relative to the rotation of the
work.
7. Compound slide: This permit movement of the tools at angles other
than a right angle (e.g. for conical work)
8. Centres: These support work drilled at end centres
9. Steadies: These support work to prevent bending. They can be either of
fixed type bolted to the end of the bed, or of the traveling type bolted to the saddle
which prevents vibration during machining of long and slender shafts.

WEEK 9

Wood holding methods

Work holding methods on a lathe machine include:

 Catch and center: This method is used when matching ordinary work between
centres. Matching between centres is used when chuck matching is impossible.
 Face plate: The pace plate has slots for clamping or holding jobs with T-bolts
Chuck: A chuck holds cylindrical work which is to be done in setting. It may be of the
three-jaw, self-centering, chuck which grips irregular jobs more efficiently than three-
jaw chuck.

SHAPER

A shaper is analogous to a planer, but smaller, and with the cutter riding a ram that
moves above a stationary workpiece, rather than the entire workpiece moving beneath
the cutter. The ram is moved back and forth typically by a crank inside the
column; hydraulically actuated shapers also exist.

Operation

Shaper linkage. Note the drive arm revolves less for the return stroke than for the
cutting stroke, resulting in a quicker return stroke and more powerful cutting stroke.
A shaper operates by moving a hardened cutting tool backwards and forwards across
the workpiece. On the return stroke of the ram the tool is lifted clear of the workpiece,
reducing the cutting action to one direction only.

The workpiece mounts on a rigid, box-shaped table in front of the machine. The
height of the table can be adjusted to suit this workpiece, and the table can traverse
sideways underneath the reciprocating tool, which is mounted on the ram. Table
motion may be controlled manually, but is usually advanced by an automatic feed
mechanism acting on the feedscrew. The ram slides back and forth above the work. At
the front end of the ram is a vertical tool slide that may be adjusted to either side of
the vertical plane along the stroke axis. This tool-slide holds the clapper box and
toolpost, from which the tool can be positioned to cut a straight, flat surface on the top
of the workpiece. The tool-slide permits feeding the tool downwards to deepen a cut.
This adjustability, coupled with the use of specialized cutters and toolholders, enable
the operator to cut internal and external gear tooth profiles, splines, dovetails, and
keyways.

The ram is adjustable for stroke and, due to the geometry of the linkage, it moves
faster on the return (non-cutting) stroke than on the forward, cutting stroke. This
action is via a slotted link or whitworthlink.

USES

The most common use is to machine straight, flat surfaces, but with ingenuity and
some accessories a wide range of work can be done. Other examples of its use are:

WEEK 10

TOPIC: FRICTION

CONTENT

When a body slides over the surface of another body, there is opposing force acting
opposite to the direction of motion. This opposing force is called FRICTION.
Friction is therefore the force that opposes the relative motion between two surfaces
that are in contact. Friction is required in most of the things we do. For instance, to be
able to run, friction is required between the shoe and the ground. Also, a car must
maintain friction between its tyres and the road to be able to move forward. It is also
important to note the following:

1. The rougher the surfaces rubbing against each other, the more the friction
2. The smoother the surfaces rubbing against each other, the less the friction
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION

1. With the help of friction it is possible to walk freely.

2. Without friction the brake of a motor car cannot work.
3. Buildup of friction between the bolts and nuts help them to stay tightened.
4. A ladder positioned against a vertical wall will not slide due to friction
between the ladder and the wall

DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION

1. It reduces the efficiency of machines

2. It causes wear and tear in machines
3. It reduces motion
4. It causes the heating of engines

APPLICATIONS OF FRICTION

1. Friction between the matchbox and the matchstick creates light

2. In sharpening a knife with a file, friction is also employed
3. In sharpening a pencil, friction is required between the sharpener blade and the
pencil for sharpening to take place.
4. Materials used for making floors in homes and offices must be of high friction
to provide a firm grip for the feet.

HOW TO REDUCE FRICTION

1. Lubricating: This involves the use of oily substance such as oil, grease and
other material, that makes surfaces smooth and slippery, thereby reducing heat, wear,
friction and vibration caused when two or more surfaces rub together.
2. Polishing: Friction between two surfaces in contact can be reduced by
polishing them
3. Streamlining: It helps to reduce friction due to the shape of an object
4. Use of belt drives and pulley

YEAR 7 Agric

SCHEME OF WORK
WEEKTOPIC
1 Revision
2 Farm Animals I (meaning, identification and types)
3 Farm Animals II (Criteria for classifying farm animals and classes)
4 Characteristics of selected farm Animals
[Link] of Farm Animals (Contd)
[Link] of Farm Animals
7Weeds: Meaning of weeds, Common farm weeds, characteristics of weeds
8. Pest: Meaning of Pests, Classification of pests
[Link] and Pest Control
[Link]
[Link]

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Essential Agricultural science for senior secondary schools by O. A. Iwena
2. WABP Junior Secondary Agriculture for Nigerian Schools, Book 1, by A. Youdeowei et al.

WEEK ONE
TOPIC: FARM ANIMALS (identification and types)
CONTENT
- Meaning of farm animals.
- Types of farm animals.

Farm animals are animals which are domesticated and reared by man. They are generally referred to as livestock.
Examples are cattle, sheep, goat, poultry, rabbit, camel, horse, donkey, grass cutter, fish, snail etc.
Types of farm animals
Farm animals have different features and are useful for different purpose.

Some animals possess fur, wool or hair and breast feed their young, they are referred to as mammals. Examples of
mammals are rabbit, cattle, sheep, goat etc.

Some farm animals possesses feathers, and have beaks for feeding, they are referred to as birds or poultry animals
examples are chicken, duck, goose, quail etc.

Some have scale, gills for respiration and live inside water they are called fishes. Examples are mackerel (titus),
horse mackerel (kote), herring (shawa), tilapia, (blue whiting, hake (panla)), alaska pollock (okporopo), argentina
silus (ojuyobo), catfish.

Other forms of farm animals are invertebrates (lacking back bone):mollusce.g snail and insect e.g bee.

Each of these animals have different features, scientific name and breed. Below are details of common farm
animals.
Cattle (Bosspp)
They are hoofed mammals which may be humped animals (Bosindicus) or humpless (Bostaurus), horned or polled.
Breedof cattle includes sokoto gudali, keteku, red bororo, N’dama, muturu, white Fulani etc.

Goat (Caprahircus)
They are hoofed mammals with male and female animals having horns. The male goat possess beards and have a
unique smell. Breeds of goat are sokoto red, angora, west African dwarf, kano brown etc.

Sheep (Ovisaries)
They are hoofed mammals very similar to goat even in sound (bleat) but possess wool on its body. It may be
polled or horned but female do not have horns. Breed of sheep includes ouda, yankasa, balami etc.

Pig (Susdomesticus)
These are mammals whose nose is modified into snout possessing two holes. They are highly prolific animals.
They do not possess sweat pore and are usual found bathing in muddyplaces to lower their body temperature when
reared extensively. Breeds of pigs are duroc, Yorkshire, Berkshire, Poland china, large white etc.

Chicken (Gallusdomesticus)
These are birds, they have beak for feeding, long toes with claws for scavenging and feathers to cover their body.
Breeds includes Cornish, sussex, barred ply mouth rock, rhode island red etc.

Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

These are small farm animals with fur and highly developed sense of smell. They are referred to as pseudo
ruminants because despite having concentrates as their basic feed stuff they can easily digest grasses like ruminant
animals. Breeds include chinchilla, Flemish giant, French giant etc.

Note: breed refers to a stock of animals of same species having a distinctive appearance. This appearance might be
the fur or skin colour pattern, behavior or abilities.

The distribution of these animals is affected by pest and disease, climate of an area in terms of rainfall distribution,
availability of water, cultural belief, religion, and availability of food.

WEEK TWO
TOPIC: FARM ANIMALS II
CONTENT
• Criteria for classifying farm animals and classes
o Size
o Habitat
o Reproduction
o Stomach type
o Uses
Animal husbandry is the science of breeding and caring for farm animals. The farm animals being cared for are
referred to as livestock. There are five categories of livestock based on some criteria. Animals can be classified
according to their sizes, habitat, reproduction pattern, stomach type or digestive system and uses or purpose for
which they are kept/reared.

Classification of animals based on their size: this criterion focuses on how big or small the animal is. There are
two classes based on size
1 Large farm animals e.g horse, cattle, camel, donkey.
2 Small farm animals e.g rabbit, snail, goat, sheep, pig, chicken etc.

Classification of animals based on their habitat: animal habitat refers to the home or dwelling place of an
animal. The place an animals is adapted to living is either in water or on land. Animals that lives on land are
referred to as terrestrial animals e.g goat, chicken, rabbit etc. Animals that live in water are referred to as aquatic
animals e.g fish

Classification of animals based on reproduction:this criterion focuses on the way they birth the young or give
rise to [Link] animals birth their young in live form, they are called mammals e.g pig, rabbit, sheep,
horse etc. some animals lays egg which later matures to give rise to their young e.g fish, poultry, snail, bees etc.

Classification of animals based on stomach type: some animals have simple stomach and basically feed on
concentrate feed stuff they are called monogastric or non-ruminant animals e.g chicken, pig etc. Some animals
possess complex stomach which have four compartments (rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum) they are
called ruminant or polygastric animals e.g cattle, sheep, goat etc. these ruminant animals chew cud i.e regurgitate
consumed forage and chew properly for a second swallow.

Note: it is important to know that some animals can maintain a constant body temperature, they are called warm
blooded animals e.g cattle, sheep, goat etc while some cannot maintain a constant body temperature; their body
temperature is dictated by the temperature of their environment e.g fishes.

Classification of animals based on their uses:farm animals are classified into

1. Work/draught animals: Theses are animals which are used as a source of farm power or labour. For example:
bulls are used to draw plough and carts, oxen and buffalo are used to pull wagons and plough, while horses,
donkeys and camels are used as beast of burden.

Characteristics of work animals are:

a. They are strong
b. They can withstand stress
c. They have large frame
d. They are docile i.e easy to control

2. Dairy animals: they are livestock whose females are used for milk production. The types of livestock that
are used for milk production are: cattle, sheep and goats.
Characteristics of dairy animals are:
a. They have well-formed udder
 b. Have a well-developed milk veins
c. Have a narrow and deep belly
d. Have a placid disposition.

3. Guard animals: these are animals which are raised and trained to provide protection for man and his
properties. E.g dog and goose.
Characteristics of guard animals are:
a. They are smart
b. They react quickly to stimuli e.g smell, noise and movements.
c. They are aggressive in nature.

4. Pet animals:These are animals which are kept as friend or companion of man. e.g rabbit, guinea pig and dogs.
Characteristics of pet animals are:
a. They are attractive and good looking
b. They are calm and easy to control
c. They are always close to the owner/keeper.

5. Meat animals: these are animals kept for their flesh. There are various delicacies that can be derived from
flesh of different animals. Commonly consumed flsh are beef (cattle meat), pork (pig meat), mutton (sheep meat),
chevon (goat meat), chicken, fish, turkey, chicken, veal (calf meat) etc. Common delicacies gotten from these flesh
includes cow tail peper soup, catfish pepper soup, isi ewu, bokoto, pomo pepper stew, fish sauce etc.

6. Sport animals: these are animals kept for sporting activities. Some sporting activities in which farm animals
can be engaged in are cockfight, ram fighting, polo, fishing etc.
Characteristics of sport animals are:
a. They are strong.
b. They can withstand stress.
c. They have large frame.
d. They are fast.

WEEK THREEDATE:…………………………
TOPIC: CHARACTERISTICS OF SELECTED FARM ANIMALS
CONTENT
• Cattle
• Sheep
• Goat
Cattle (Bos spp)
Belong to the family of animals called hoofed animals, reared majorly for meat and milk. Humped cattle are
scientifically called Bos indicus, while humpless cattle are called Bos [Link] may or may not have horns.
Characteristics of cattle
1. They have large body size
2. They belong to the family of mammals called Bovine
3. They are mammals because they give birth to their young ones alive.
 4. They are ruminants
5. Male and female cattle possess horns
6. A female cow can produce one calf a year (gestation period is 283 days)
7. Beef cattle are usually stocky, i.e. has a lot of flesh/meat while dairy cattle are usually bony.
8. Cattle generally feed on forage crops.
Breed of cattle includes sokoto gudali, keteku, red bororo, N’dama, muturu, white Fulani etc.

Sheep
Sheep also belongs to the family of hoofed animals. They are reared in all countries and provide meat (mutton),
milk and wool for man’s use.
Characteristics of Sheep
1. They are ruminant animals
2. They are mammals.
3. They possess or have medium body size with long legs
4. They possess long and droopy earlobes
5. Usually reared for its meat, wool, leather, milk and fleece.
6. Male sheep have horns while the female are polled (don’t have horns).
7. They mostly give birth to twins and can give birth to its young ones up to three times in two
years (gestation period is 150 days).
8. They possess long, thick tails which hang down.
Breed of sheep includes ouda, yankasa, balami etc.

Goat
Goat also belongs to the family of hoofed animals. They are reared in all countries and provide meat (chevon)
and milkman’s [Link] are important animals because: they can adapt to harsh environments, it can survive on
anything including wastes, it is resistant to wide variety of diseases and high temperature in the tropics, it can fend
for itself.
Characteristics of Goats
1. They possess medium body size
2. Both male and female goats possess horns
3. They are tough animals and are able to withstand unfavourable weather conditions
4. They are kept for the production of meat, milk and skin.
5. Male goats have beards
6. It can give birth to its young ones up to three times in two years (gestation period is 150 days).
7. It can survive by feeding on almost any available food including kitchen waste.
Breeds of goat are sokoto red, angora, west African dwarf, kano brown etc.

WEEK FOURDATE:………………
TOPIC: CHARACTERISTICS OF FARM ANIMALS (CONTD)
CONTENT
• Pig
 • Rabbit
• Poultry

Pig (Sus domesticus)

They are the most productive of all commonly reared farm animals producing from 8 – 16 piglets per litter.
Characteristics of Pig
1. They possess snout (modified nose)
2. They have long droopy/erect ears
3. They possess short curly tail
4. They do not have sweat pore.
5. They are highly prolific animals farrowing u to 16 piglets per litter.
6. They do not have horns
7. They are reared for their meat and fat (lard).
Breeds of pigs are duroc, Yorkshire, Berkshire, Poland china, large white etc.

Rabbits
Rabbits are found in tropical and temperate countries and raised for its meat and skin. It can reproduce up to four
times in a year and can produce about 6-8 kits per litter.
Characteristics of Rabbits
1. Possess medium body size
2. Young ones are usually born blind.
3. They can give birth up to 4 times in a year
4. They do not possess horns
5. They are mammals, but non-ruminants.
6. Gestation period is about 32 days.
7. They give birth to large litters at once about 6-8.
8. They have good quality meat (white meat).

Poultry
Usually reared for their meat and egg, they can be found anywhere. They are referred to as fowl or birds.
Characteristics of Poultry
1. They are monogastrics animals
2. They are medium sized animals
3. They are prolific egg layers. That is, they lay a lot of eggs.
4. They are non-mammals because they lay eggs which later hatch into chicks.
5. They possess beak modified for feeding
6. Their bodies are covered with feathers.
7. They are reared for meat, eggs and feathers.
Examples are duck, chicken, goose, turkey, pigeon, quail etc.

IMPORTANT DETAILS TO NOTE ABOUT COMMON FARM ANIMALS

ANIMAL SCIENTIFIC MALE FEMALE YOUNG MEAT ACT OF GESTATION GROUP/CLASS
 NAME PARTURITION PERIOD

Cattle Bosspp Bull Cow Calf Beef Calving 283 days Mammal

Goat Caprahircus Buck Doe Kid Chevon Kidding 150 days Mammal

Sheep Ovisaries Ram Ewe Lamb Mutton Lambing 150 days Mammal

Pig Susdomesticus Boar Sow Piglet Pork Farrowing 114 days Mammal

Rabbit Oryctolaguscu Buck Doe Kit Kindling 32 days Mammal

niculus

Chicken Gallusdomesti Cock Hen Chick Hatching 21 days Bird

cus

WEEK FIVE`DATE:…………
CONTENT
• Importance of farm animals

IMPORTANCE OF FARM ANIMALS

Farm animals are used by man for the following purposes:
1. Food: Some products obtained from farm animals include meat, milk and eggs, which are eaten by
man.
2. Clothing: Animals products such as wool, skin and furs are used for clothing, the skin and fibres of
animals that are used for leather bags, drums, foot wear are gotten from animals like cattle, Goat and
Sheep. Feather from poultry are used for stuffing pillows and cushions
3. Farm power or work: Some animals such as bullocks, horses, camels and donkeys could serve as
sources of power to help with farm work.
4. Fertilizer or Manure: Animal dropping such as excreta are used as organic fertilizer or farm manure to
add nutrients to the soil or fertilize the soil.
5. Security or Protection: Some farm animals e.g dogs and geese are used by farmers to protect their
property against thieves.
6. Sports: Farm animals like horses, ram, bull and chicken are used for sports e.g horse racing and playing
polo etc.
7. Medicine: Medicine are manufactured from the thyroid glands of sheep and cattle and are used to cure
diseased thyroid gland of human beings.

WEEK SIXDATE:…………………
TOPIC: WEED
CONTENT

DEFINITION OF WEED
Weed is any plant which is not cultivated and is growing where it is not wanted. Such a plant is therefore a
nuisance to the farmer. Examples; commelina, goat weed or the common water leaf(Talinum triangulare) growing
in a cassava field.

Types of Weeds according to lifecycle

A. Annual weed: They grow and complete their life cycle in one year
 B. Perennial Weeds: They grow for more than one year.

Types of weeds according to the shape of their leaves

i. Broad-leaves Weeds: These are weed plants with broad leaves. They are dicotyledonous plants
ii. Grasses and sedges: These plants have long, thin leaves and are monocotyledonous plants.
Examples of weeds
Some common weeds found in Nigeria are:
Common nameBotanical name
1. Goat weedArgeratum conyzoides
2. Guinea grassPanicum maximum
3. Pig weedAmaranthus spinosus
4. Bahama grassCynodon dactylon
5. Elephant grassPennisetum purpureum
6. Carpet grassAxonopus compresus
7. TridaxTridax procumbens
8. Spear grass Heteropogon contortus
9. Sida weedSida acuta
10. Water leafTalinum triangulare

Characteristics of Weeds
They are
i. Weeds grow very fast and cover the land area very quickly.
ii. Many weeds produce fruits and seeds which are easily carried and spread all over the place by humans,
animals, wind and water.
iii. Many weeds are persistent, which means that they remain in the ground throughout the year and
continue to grow as long as the weather conditions in the area permit and especially when cultivated crops
are grown on the land.
iv. They compete with crops for nutrient, space, water and sunlight.
v. They are resistance to harsh climatic conditions.

Advantages of weed
1. They serve as source of food to man.
2. They serve as source of feed to animals.
3. They increase fertility of nutrient status of soil directly or indirectly.
4. They help to control erosion.
5. They serve as source of medicinal herbs for man.

Disadvantages of Weeds
1. Weeds compete with cultivated crops for the nutrients in the soil.
2. Weeds grow rapidly hence they crowd and cover cultivated plant thus prevent them from growing.
3. They make land cultivation difficult
4. Weeds which use crops as support can cause strangling to death of such crop. e.g Parasitic weeds.
5. Transmission of insects, fungi and other organism harmful to crops.
6. They results in the reduction in value and quality of farm produce.
 7. Wastage of money in control.
8. They increase farmers cost of production.
9. They lead to loss of livestock when they consume poisonous weeds.

WEEK SEVENDATE:…………………
TOPIC:PEST
CONTENT
• Meaning of Pests.
• Classification of pests.

A pest is any living organism (plant or animal) which can cause damage to cultivated crops, farm animals and
humans.

Classification of animal pests

Animal pest can be classified as
i) Insect Pest- Insect pest are animals without backbones and they belong to the group of animals called
Arthropods. Arthropods is a very large group of animals which, in addition to insects, include crabs,
shrimps, millipedes, spiders, centipedes and scorpions, mites etc.
ii) Non-insect pest- These are animals such as vertebrates like nematodes, snails, slug’s e.t.c. and
vertebrates like rats, squirrels, monkeys, glasscutters, birds, jackals that can cause damage to crop.

EVALUATION QUESTIONS
1. What is a pest?
2. Mention two classes of animal pests.

Classification of Insect Pests

Insect can be classified based on their mouth parts which are different in different insect groups.
1. Biting and Chewing Pests: These insects possess a very hard biting jaws called mandibles, a second
pair of jaws called maxillae, a flat upper lip called the labrum, and a lower lip known as the labium. The
mandibles are used to bite off and chew parts of crops while the maxillae are used to push the parts of the
crop into the mouth. Examples are grasshoppers, locusts, beetles and crickets, army-worms, termites, leaf
worm, mantids etc.
2. Piercing and Sucking Pests: These insects have sharp needle-like mouth parts which can pierce into
stems or fruits and seeds of crops and suck juices from them. Examples are mosquitoes, aphids, mealy-
bugs, tsetse flies, white flies, cotton stainer, capsid etc.
3. Boring insects: these pests form holes into crops and live inside, feeding on the internal parts of the
crop. Examples are bean beetle, stem borer, weevil etc

Nature of damage by insect pest

1. Destruction of crop tissues.
2. Stunted growth in crops and animals.
3. Weakened crop plant.
4. Pierced holes can be infested with harmful organism like fungi, bacteria and viruses
 5. Transfer of harmful organism from infected crop to the healthy one.
6. It causes ill-health to man and livestock e.g sleeping sickness (tsetsefly), mange (mite), babesia (tick).

WEEK NINEDATE:…………………
TOPIC: WEEDS AND PEST CONTROL
CONTENT
• Definition of weed/pest control.
• Physical control, Chemical control and Biological control.
• Use Of Machines, Cultural control.

Methods of weed/pestControl
Weed control involves removal and preventing weeds from spreading quickly and causing damage to cultivated
crops. Some very common methods of weed control are:

1. Physical control: These involve picking of weeds and insects from the crop/animal by hand. It is called Hand
picking. It is most useful for large insects like grasshoppers but very difficult to use on large farmland or if the
number of pest is high. ):- This is a slow and tedious method of controlling weeds. It is efficient in small farms.
Regular weeding must be done using hand, cutlass or hoe during wet season when weeds tend to grow and spread
rapidly. Other methods of physical control includes setting traps, use of scare crow, use of net, use of reflective
plastic strips, use of empty tin cans.

2. Chemical control: The most common method of controlling insect pest and weed is by the use of chemicals.
Chemicals which are poisonous to insects and weeds are called insecticides and herbicides respectively. The
insecticides are applied by spraying by the machine known as sprayers.

3. Biological Control: These involve the use of natural enemies of insect pests and weeds against them. The
natural enemies may be other insects that feed on them or on their laid eggs. For example, beetle can successfully
control water weed and water hyacinth by feeding on their stems and leaves, cat can control rat, chicken can
control insect.

4. Mechanical control (Use of Machines): It is use in large farms through the use of machines called cultivators
or weeders to remove weeds efficiently and effectively. This
method is suitable in farms where the crops are well planted in rows.

5. Cultural Control (Use of Cropping Systems): Crop rotation system is very useful, earl planting and timely
harvesting in preventing weeds from growing and spreading. Also, cover crops can be grown to prevent weed
growth. Cover crops have large leaves, spread very rapidly and thus can kill any young weed seedlings. Examples
of cover crops are members of the bean family e.g. Mucuna and Centrosema
YEAR 8

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKTOPIC
1. Revision of last term’s work
2. Animals feed and feeding
3. Classification of livestockfeed
4. Factor to consider before deciding Animal Feeds
5. Farm animals diseases: definition and causes
6. Farm animal diseases- Bacterial
7. Farm animal diseases-Viral
8. Farm animal diseases-Fungal and Protozoan
9. Farm animal diseases-worms and nutritional
10. Revision
11. Examinations

REFERENCE BOOK
Junior Secondary Agriculture for Nigerian Schools Book 2 by Anthony Yandeowei, [Link], J.N
Ogbazi, Terry Olowu.

WEEK ONEDATE: ………………… TOPIC: REVISION OF LAST TERM’S WORK

CONTENT
• Answers to last term’s objective questions
• Answers to last term’s theory questions
Cultural practices

WEEK TWODATE: …………………

TOPIC: ANIMALS FEED AND FEEDING
CONTENT
• Meaning of feed
• Types of animal feed
• Feeding tools
DEFINITION OF FEED
Feed refers to the food given to animals. They contain nutrient/element either alone or in combination with other
substances which supports the healthy growth and development of livestock.

TYPES OF FEED
Animal feeds can be classified into four main groups according to the digestibility, quantity of fibre, quantity
required and moisture in the feed. The four groups of feeds are;
 1. Concentrates: They are fee with a low proportion of fibre and water content. They are easily digested by
farm animals. Concentrates can be further be subdivided into two groups: Those containing a high proportion
of carbohydrates are called carbohydrate concentrates/basal feed/energy feed e.g maize, guinea corn, cassava
e.t.c while those with a high proportion of proteins are called protein concentrates e.g beans, peas, cotton seed,
sunflower seeds and heads, groundnuts, palm kernel and animal products such as meat, blood meal, bone meal,
fishmeal and milk.
2. Roughages: Roughages are very low in protein and carbohydrate but high in fibre. They are not easily
digested by animals, therefore are fed together with concentrate foods for young animals and those kept for
milk and meat production. Examples are hay, groundnut hulls, straw, bean pods and maize stover.
3. Succulents: These have high water content. They are easy to digest. Examples are freshly
cut/lush grass and legume plants, pumpkin, silage, melons and most green crops.
4. Supplements (minerals and vitamins): they are required in small quantities, low in energy, protein and
fibre but high in vitamins and minerals. They aid digestion and increase animals resistance to diseases. They
are available in basal and protein concentrate feeds. Other sources are bone meal, oyster shell, salt licks etc.

FEEDING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM ANIMALS

Common animal feeding equipment includes:
1. Hay racks: They are used for feeding animals with hay and other forages
2. Feed troughs or bunks: These are used for feeding grain and silage. Troughs for feeding cattle are
usually stationary and located on a well-drained site preferably on concrete or hard surfaces.
3. Self-feeders: These are mainly used for fattening cattle. Self-feeders may be stationary or portable.
4. Watering facilities: Farm animals cannot survive for a long time without water. Mature cattle can
consume an average of 12 litres of water per head daily depending on the size of the animals, season and
the type of feed consumed. Water troughs, wells, springs, streams, or lakes are the main sources of water
supply for cattle. Water troughs and tanks should be of adequate size when used.
NOTE: Farm animals should be provided with suitable shade while feeding particularly during the dry season to
reduce heat burden.

WEEK THREE DATE:………………………

TOPIC: CLASSIFICATION OF LIVESTOCK FEED
CONTENT
• Feed nutrients.
• Classes of feed nutrient.
FEED NUTRIENTS
These are substances obtained from feed and used by the body to promote growth, maintenance and repairs of
body tissues. About 21 chemical elements make up the various feed nutrients needed for the nutrition of farm
animals. The following shows the elements and their chemical symbols.
Name of elementChemical symbol
Carbon C

Non mineral elements

Hydrogen H
Oxygen O
Nitrogen N
PhosphorusP
PotassiumK

Macro mineral elements

ChlorineCl
MagnesiumMg
SulphurS
CalciumCa
SodiumNa
CobaltCo
CopperCu
FluorineF
ManganeseMn

Micro mineral elements

ZincZn
MolybdenumMo
SeleniumSe
ChromiumCr
IodineI
IronFe

Classes of livestock feed nutrient

There are many types of feed nutrients suitable for livestock. It is important to understand the main classes and its
constituent elements and functions of animal feeds.
The major feed nutrients include:
1. Carbohydrates
These foods are needed by livestock for supplying the energy required by the body for doing work and for the
functioning of different organs of the body. Carbohydrates occur in nature as starches, cellulose or fibre. They
contain elements, such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which are easily ‘burnt up’ or oxidized to produce
energy. Examples are yams, cassava, potato, rice and breaD.
2. Fats
Fats contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Fats have more carbon and oxygen than carbohydrates. They
supply energy needed by the body for keeping the body temperature at the correct level. They produce two and
a half times the energy produced by carbohydrates. Fat can be found in plant and animal materials. Examples
are milk, fatty seeds such as groundnuts, coconuts and cotton seeds, animal by-products, fish by-products,
cereals, roots and tubers.
3. Proteins
Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and sometimes iron, phosphorus and or sulphur.
Proteins are found in the protoplasm of all animals and plants. They are required by animals for growth and for
the repair of worn-out tissues and organs of the body. Examples of protein-rich foods include soybeans, cotton
 seeds, groundnut, peas and beans as well as fish and meat. The common sources of protein for animal feeds
are forages, animal and fish by-products, roots and tubers and cereal grains.
4. Minerals
Minerals are necessary in an animal’s diet. They are required in small quantities only, except phosphorus and
calcium which are important for bone formation. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are four of the twenty
one elements that function in animal nutrition and are called non-mineral elements. The other 17 elements are
called mineral elements. Macro-elements are required by the animals in large quantities and they are calcium,
phosphorus, potassium, sodium, sulphur, chlorine and magnesium. The remaining ten elements are required in
very small quantities and are called micro-elements or trace elements and they are iron, iodine, copper, cobalt,
chromium, fluorine, manganese, zinc, molybdenum and selenium.
5. Water
Water contains hydrogen and oxygen. Water is needed by farm animals to aid digestion and distribution of
food in their body. It also helps in the regulation of body temperature through heat loss by evaporation from
the skin and lungs. Water is contained in the feeds of animals.
6. Vitamins
These are another group of substances which must present in very tiny amounts in the rations of farm animals.
They are essential for the proper and normal functioning of the animal’s body. Their deficiency leads to ill-
health of the animal. Vitamins contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Vitamins can be grouped into
i) Water-soluble e.g Vitamin B and C and
ii) Fat-soluble vitamins e.g Vitamin A, D, E and K.

WEEK FOURDATE: …………………

TOPIC: FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE DECIDING ANIMAL FEED
Factors to consider before deciding animal feeds are
a. Age
b. Physiological status
c. Purpose of rearing the animals
d. Management system

Age
Younger animals require more proteinous feeds than the older animals.

Physiological status
Pregnant and lactating animas will consume more feed and need nutritious feed to sustain their young ones and
foetus.

Purpose of rearing the animals

Animals kept for production of milk, egg, work e.t.c will be fed with feed suited for that purpose and will need
more in terms of quantity than other animals.

Management system
Animals kept under intensive management system would require more quantity and quality feed due to the fact
that they are confined and cannot fend for themselves as compared to animals kept under other management
systems.

Definition of some terms associated with animal feeding

Diet is the amount of feed formulated to meet the specific need of an animal

Ration is the total amount of feed supplied to animal per day.

A balanced ration is a feed constituent that contains all essential nutrients in their appropriate quantities before
being offered to an animal. There are two types of balanced ration, they are

Maintenance ration: is the amount of feed given to an animal to within a 24 hour period just enough for the
animal to maintain its normal bodily functions without adding or losing live weight.

Production ration: is the amount of feed given to a specific group of animal within a 24 hour period to enable
them produce appropriately.

Categories of animals fed production ration are:

1. Lactating animals for milk production.
2. Growers/Weaning animals to support growth.
3. Fattening animals to reach desired weight in good time.
4. Flushing for female animals prior to breeding.
5. Steaming up for pregnant animals prior to parturition.
6. Pregnant animals to support growing foetus.
7. Broilers to for rapid growth.
8. Layers for quality egg production.

WEEK FIVEDATE:………………….
TOPIC: FARM ANIMAL DISEASE I
CONTENT
• Definition of disease
• Causes of diseases in farm animal
• Mode of transmission of farm animal disease
• Symptoms of farm animals diseases

DEFINITION
Disease is any change in the normal function or well-being of farm animals caused by another organism. Animals,
like human beings, suffer from many serious diseases which may make them sick and may cause their death in
large numbers if they are not treated.

CAUSES OF DISEASES IN FARM ANIMAL

Five groups of organism which commonly cause animal disease; they are:
1. Bacteria
2. Viruses
3. Protozoa
4. Worms (parasitic nematodes)
5. Fungi

MODE OF TRANSMISSION OF FARM ANIMAL DISEASE

Disease-causing organisms can transit diseases to farm animals through the following modes:
i. Air (airborne)
ii. Water
iii. Direct contact with organism
iv. Bites from insects, ticks and mites
However, preventing exposure of farm animals to these sources of transmission of diseases, the chances of farm
animals being affected by diseases which can make them sick can be reduced.

SYMPTOMS OF FARM ANIMAL DISEASES

Symptom refers to the sign or indication of the presence of an abnormal condition in an animal. Diseased animals
show specific symptoms which farmers can recognize that there are changes in the normal functioning of the
bodies of farm animals. Farmers can recognize symptoms of different diseases in their sick animals. Such
sick animals are taken to veterinary doctors who can prescribe medicines to cure the farm animals. Common
symptoms of diseases in animals include the following:
i. Stunted growth
ii. Reduced food utilization
iii. Rise in temperature- high fever
iv. Abortion in female animals
v. Sores and exudates from the skin
vi. Enlarged udder
vii. Stained blood in orifices
viii. Loss of hair (alopecia)
ix. Loss of weight (emaciation)
x. Loss of appetite (anorexia)
xi. Anaemia (shortage of blood)

WEEK SIXDATE:………………….
TOPIC: FARM ANIMAL DISEASES II
CONTENT
• Bacteria diseases - modes of transmission, methods of control, symptoms

BACTERIA DISEASES
1. Anthrax:
Anthrax is a bacterial disease which attacks mammals’ especially herbivorous animals, such as sheep and goats.
Mode of transmission: The disease is mostly transmitted by eating infected or contaminated materials. It can also
be transmitted through contact with affected animals and feeding equipment and infected wounds.

Symptoms: Grinding of teeth, rise in temperature and convulsion. This disease can kill an animal suddenly. It
starts when the animal respires rapidly and stops feeding.

Method of prevention and control: Sick animals should be isolated. Vaccination of the animals should be done
regularly; proper sanitation should be maintained in all animal houses. Animal that dies of the disease, together
with all the beddings should be buried deep in the ground. The animal house should be disinfected immediately.
Treatment: Sick animals should be isolated. The disease is treated with antibiotics such as penicillin.

2. Typhoid:
This is a bacterial disease found mainly in poultry birds. It affects the intestines of the birds.

Mode of transmission: Through contact with the body fluids of infected birds.

Symptoms: The symptoms include high fever, tiredness and reddish droppings.
Method of prevention and control: Consult a veterinary doctor. Poultry birds should be vaccinated against this
disease.

Treatment: Consult a veterinary doctor.

3. Contagious abortion: This is a bacteria disease of cattle, goats and pigs. It is also referred to as brucellosis.

Mode of transmission: This disease is transmitted through food and water contaminated with discharge and
aborted foetus.

Symptoms: This includes; still births, retained placenta, abortion during the 7 to 9 month of pregnancy and
th th

infertility in males.

Method of prevention and control: The affected animal should be isolated from the other animals in the herd. All
animals should be vaccinated before breeding. Animals should be given food in very clean containers and
surroundings.

Treatment: This is by vaccination.

4. Mastitis: This is bacterial disease that affects the breasts of cattle, sheep, goats and pigs(swine).

Mode of transmission: The disease is transmitted into the breasts (mammary glands) of the animals by bacteria
from dirty floors and milkers through the teat and udders.

Symptoms: include fever, pains, swellings of the udder, blood in the milk and rise in temperature of the animal.
Method of prevention and control:
a. The udder of animals should be properly washed before and after milking.
b. Milking by hand should be done in clean environments.
c. Hands to be used for milking must be well washed with soap and clean water before commencing
milking.
d. Overcrowding of diary animals should always be preventeD.

Treatment: The disease can be treated by injecting penicillin and other antibiotics in the body of the affected
animals.

5. Cowpox
This disease affects cows as well as sheep and poultry.

Symptoms
The udder of an affected cow is swollen; there are eruptions on the udder of cows.

Method of prevention and control: Disinfect all equipment used for feeding and milking cattle.

WEEK SEVENDATE:………………….
TOPIC: FARM ANIMAL DISEASES III
CONTENT
• Viral diseases- symptoms, mode of transmission, prevention and control

VIRAL DISEASES
1. Rinderpest or cattle plague: This is a serious and very contagious viral disease that attacks cattle quickly. It
can also attack sheep and goats. The disease is very deadly; it killed thousands of cattle in Nigeria several years
ago. It is found in the blood, tissue fluids and secretions of affected animals.

Mode of transmission: it is transmitted through direct contact and also through contaminated feed and water.

Symptoms: include rise in temperature, loss of appetite, blood stained diarrhea, difficulty in breathing and
frequent abortion. The major effect of the disease is high mortality.

Method of prevention and control: Immunization; vaccination is a good preventive measure as no

medical treatment-has been successful. Affected animals should be isolated.

2. Foot and mouth disease: This is a virus disease of cattle, birds, goats, sheep and pigs. The disease
is highly contagious
Mode of transmission: The disease is transmitted by contact with affected animals.

Symptoms: The symptoms are fever, headache and swellings or blisters on the mouth, skin, udder and salivation.
Method of prevention and control: The disease is better controlled than [Link] animals, particularly
cattle, are often destroyed by mass killing to prevent the disease from spreading to other animals. It can be
controlled by immunization and good sanitation. Infected animals should be isolated from healthy animals.

3. Newcastle Disease
This is a viral disease of poultry.

Mode of transmission: it is transmitted through secretions from the birds and contact with infected dead birds on
the farm. The disease is also air-borne.

Symptoms: include coughing and sneezing, nasal and eye discharges, difficulty in breathing, loss of appetite,
diarrhea, paralysis and general weakness.

Method of prevention and control: proper sanitation should be maintained. Affected animals should
be quarantined. All animals should be vaccinated.

4. Bird Flu (Avian Influenza)

Bird flu is also called Avian Influenza. This is now a very well-known disease which affects poultry in many
countries, including Nigeria. It is a highly contagious viral disease that is caused by a virus affecting the
respiratory, digestive and or the nervous system of poultry. In some cases in some Asian countries, human have
been reported to be affected by this disease.

Mode of transmission: This disease can be transmitted by direct contact with the secretions from infected birds,
especially the faeces. The disease can be transmitted indirectly through contaminated water, animal feeds,
equipment and even clothing. The virus penetrates into the body through the respiratory and digestive systems.

Symptoms: Severe depression, refusal to eat, greatly reducedegg production, difficulty in breathing, watery eyes,
swollen face especially the comb and wattle which change colour to blueish black, diarrhea, sudden death, with or
without showing any symptoms. Ducks may usually die without showing any symptoms.

Method of prevention and control:

i. Avoid contact between domestic poultry and wild birds.
ii. Separate different species of poultry raised on the same farm from one another.
iii. Quarantine newly acquired or re-introduced birds for example unsold birds taken to the market.
iv. Do not allow unauthorized persons to visit the farm
v. Install foot baths with disinfectant at the entrance of all poultry houses in the farm.
vi. Wash hands and feet with clean water before entering and leaving poultry houses in the farm.
vii. Frequently disinfect soiled materials and farm equipment.
viii. Make sure that the source of poultry feed and water are clean and not already contaminated so that
poultry are protected from infection.
ix. If poultry are dying in large numbers or you observe the symptoms described, call a veterinary doctor
immediately.
 x. Bury or burn all dead birds and wash your hands and feet thoroughly with soap and clean water after
burning or burying the dead or infected birds.

5. Pneumonia: This is a virus disease of cattle. It attacks the lungs of cattle.

Symptoms: Symptoms include rise in temperature, vigorous breathing, loss of appetite and discharge from the
nose and eyes.(pneumonia can also be caused by bacteria).

Method of prevention and control: Proper sanitation should be maintained. Affected animals should
be quarantined. All animals should be vaccinated.

Treatment: The use of antibiotics or administering anti-viral medication.

6. Kata: This is a virus disease of goats, found in the southern parts of Nigeria. The disease affects the respiratory
and intestinal tracks of animals. It is also called peste des petits ruminants/goat plague.

Symptoms: the signs of disease include coughing, discharge from the nostrils, scrabs on the lips and other parts of
the mouth and diarrhea.
Control: avoid over-crowding of animals.

Treatment: vaccination against the disease, no specific treatment but outbreak of the disease should be reported to
the veterinary doctor.

WEEK EIGHTDATE:…………………………
TOPIC: FARM ANIMAL DISEASES IV
CONTENT
• Fungal and Protozoa disease
PROTOZOAN DISEASES
1. Trypanosomiasis (Nagana)
Trypanosomiasis, also called Nagana, is a deadly disease suffered by some breeds of cattle like white Fulani and
Red Bororo. The Ndama and Muturu cattle are resistant to this disease. It is caused by a protozoan called
Trypanosomes. Trypanosome parasites can be transmitted by infected tsetse flies when they bite humans. Persons
who are infected with this parasite suffer from the disease called sleeping sickness.

Mode of transmission: it is transmitted by female tsetse flies when they suck blood from an infected animal and
later transmit the parasites to the healthy animals when they suck their [Link] tsetse flies require the blood
of mammals for the development of young larvae inside the flies. Male tsetse flies do not suck blood therefore they
cannot transmit this parasite.
Symptoms: Rise in temperature, dullness in appearance, sleepiness, nervous disorder, anaemia, paralysis,
the infected animal loses weight, becomes drowsy and may finally die.
Method of prevention and control: Destroy the tsetse fly habitat by clearing the surrounding bushes and spray
with recommended insecticides to kill the tsetse flies.

Treatment: Use drugs such as Bayer 205 or lomidine or consult a veterinary doctor.
2. Coccidiosis
This is a protozoan disease that attacks cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry and rabbits.
Mode of transmission: It is transmitted through contamination with the faeces of infected animals through feed,
dirty water and soil contaminated with droppings.
Symptoms: Symptoms include Watery discharge, loss of appetite, anaemia, bloody faeces, paleness, ruffled
feathers and progressive emaciation and many animals may die.
Method of prevention and control: Droppings from infected poultry animals should be properly separated from
the healthy animals. High level of sanitation should be maintained in poultry houses. Feed and water troughs
should always be kept very clean. The disease can be treated with many drugs that are recommended by veterinary
doctors.

FUNGAL DISEASES: diseases caused by fungi

1. Aspergillosis
This is a disease of poultry.
Mode of transmission: This disease is transmitted through the air (air-borne) by inhaling air through the nostrils
of birds. It is also transmitted through mouldy litter and feed, overcrowding and contaminated incubators.
Symptoms: Symptoms include loss of appetite, difficulty in breathing, rise in temperature and whistling noise.
Method of prevention and control: All sources of contamination should be removed. The hatchery should be
kept clean, water and feed spillage should be prevented.

2. Ringworm
This is a fungal disease that affects all farm animals.
Mode of transmission: This disease is spread through contact with infected animals and bushes.
Symptoms: Ringworm is manifested in farm animals with the appearance of lesions on the skin, skin irritation,
loss of weight and loss of appetite.
Method of prevention and control:
a. All bushes around the farm should be cleared.
b. The affected skin should be treated with a mixture of sulphur and Vaseline.
c. In poultry, violet or iodine ointment should be rubbed on the ringworm lesions.

WEEK NINEDATE:…………………
TOPIC: FARM ANIMAL DISEASES V
CONTENT
• Worms: identification, types of worms, symptoms, control of worms.
• Nutritional bloat
• General Guidelines for Prevention and Control of Animal Diseases.
WORMS
There are several types of parasitic worms that attack farm animals. An attack may lead to
the death of an animal. Some of the worms live in the intestine, respiratory tract and
various organs of the body.
Examples of worms
1. Tapeworms
2. Roundworms, and
3. Liver fluke

Symptoms of worm infection

The signs of worm infection in the animal depends on where the worms are living in the body of the animal.
Generally these signs include the following:
1. Coughing
2. Diarrhea
3. Loss of weight
4. Anaemia
5. Worms in faeces.

Control of worm infection:

Worm infection in farm animals can be controlled through the following means:
1. The affected animals should be isolated and treated with worm expellers
2. Grazing of animals on pasture should be avoided. The animal faeces should be removed at regular
intervals. Water and feeds should not be contaminated by the faeces.
3. Farm animals should be well fed so that they can resist the effects of worms.

Nutritional bloat
This is a disease of cattle, sheep. Goats and rabbits.
Mode of transmission: It is contacted through eating succulent fodder and blockage of the digestive tract
especially in cattle.
Sypmtoms: Sypmtoms include swollen digestive tract and enlargement of the bowel.
Method of prevention and control: The feeding of succulent fodder should be reduced. The animal should be fed
with protein supplement. Cattle, sheep and goats should not be allowed to eat a lot of seeds.

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF ANIMAL DISEASES

To maintain animals in good, healthy condition, the farmer must pay attention to the following general guidelines:
1. Only clean and healthy animals should be brought into the herd
2. Lots should be drained in order to make them dry and free from stagnant water
3. Farm animals with contagious diseases should be isolated.
4. Farm animals should be tested at least once a year for brucellosis, tuberculosis and other diseases.
5. All farm animals should be vaccinated against diseases common in the locality as a preventive measure.
6. Disinfect housing and equipment regularly
7. Use only recommended insecticides and their application methods for the control of parasites.
8. Do not allow animals to lie on cold floors
9. Isolate newly acquired animals for a minimum of three weeks (quarantine) before they are mixed with
other animals.
10. Spray newly acquired animals with insecticide to control lice; also check for internal parasites and
treat infected animals.
 11. Seek the advice of the veterinary doctor.

YEAR 9

Week 1 & 2

Subject: Agricultural Science

Topic: Farm Records and Book Keeping

Farm records are written account of work expenses and income in farming
enterprises.

Importance of Farm records

1. Farm records enable the farmer to make proper return to the boards of internal
revenue for correct tax assessment
2. It provides the farmers with the clear idea of how much money is coming in
and how much it is wise to spend
3. It enables the farmers to know whether he is making profit or loss
4. It helps the farmer to obtain loans and subsides from government
5. It helps the farmers to make budgets and plan his business
6. It enables the farmers to make good management and decision

BOOKKEEPING

Book keeping is the recording, on a day-to-day basis, of the financial transactions and
information pertaining to a business. It ensures that records of the individual financial
transactions are correct, up-to-date and comprehensive. Accuracy is therefore vital to
the process.

Book keeping provides the information from which accounts are prepared. It is a
distinct process that occurs within the broader scope of accounting.

Each transaction, whether it is a question of purchase or sale, must be recorded. There

are usually set structures in place for bookkeeping that are called ‘quality controls’,
which help ensure timely and accurate records.

Recording transactions
In principle, transactions must be recorded daily into the books or the accounting
system.

For each transaction, there must be a document that describes the business transaction.
This could include a sales invoice, sales receipt, a supplier invoice, a supplier
payment, bank payments and journals.

These accompanying documents provide the audit trail for each transaction and are an
important part of maintaining accurate records in the event of an audit.

Types of Farm records

There are many records that needs to be kept in a farm, some of which are

Farm diary: This is a record of day to day records of everything that happens in a
farm.

Farm inventory: A record of all asset owned by the farmers and the cash values of
the item e.g. land, equipment, crops in the farm and in storage.

Input records: This is a record of all the items in running the farm during the years;
it’s used in calculating the farm profit

Production Records: A record of all items produced in the farm, it enables the
farmers to know which projects are more profitable.

Labour Diary: This is a records of day to day work done on the farm, it’s uses to
determine the work done, amount of labour expended and the cost at the end of each
operation

Sales records: A records of all products sold by the farmer e.g. eggs, yam, goat etc

Consumption records: A record of all farm product consumed by the farmer and his
family

Week 3 & 4

A. Meaning of Production

Production can be defined as the transformation of raw materials into finished goods. It is
concerned with all legal activities which are directed towards the satisfaction of human wants.
Human wants are many, but they can be divided into material wants and non-material wants. The
material wants are referred to as goods while the non material wants are called services.

Production involves the conversion of raw materials and semi finished goods into tangible goods
that can satisfy the needs of the people. Examples of tangible goods are: yam, rice, clothes, cars,
radio etc.

B. Types of Production

Types of Production are

Primary Production: Primary production is concerned with the extraction of food crops from soil,
crops like yam, ground nut, rubber etc all for human consumption and as raw materials for
manufacturing industry. It is the extraction of mineral resources from the ground; such resources
include crude oil, coal, gold etc. The primary production is carried out by Extractive Industry. An
industry is a combination of all firms providing similar goods.

Secondary Production: Secondary production makes use of the products from the primary
production to produce finished goods. Example: The cotton extracted will be transformed into
clothing during secondary production by the manufacturing industry.

Relationship between Commerce and Production

The following are the relationship that exists between commerce and relationship.

Commerce involves the process of buying, selling and distribution of goods while production
involves the creating of such goods and services and making them available to satisfy human
wants, therefore when goods and services are not produced there is nothing that will be
transported or distributed. The products get to the final consumer through buying, selling and
distribution which is commerce.

Factors of Production can be defined as the basic resources or agents used for producing goods
and services. Factors of production make it possible for goods to be produced in the required
quantity and quality.

The factors of production are land, labor, capital and entrepreneur.

LAND: The land is a free gift of nature; it refers to the resources provided by nature to aid the
production of goods and services. Examples of land are rivers, farmlands, seas, the fishes in them,
forestry minerals such as coal, crude oil, iron etc. Others are the climatic conditions like rain,
sunshine, animals etc.

Features of Land

The following points below are the features/ characteristics of land

Land is immobile i.e the location of land cannot be changed, it is fixed.

The value of land varies from one location to another.

It is a free gift of nature

The supply of land is limited The reward for labor is rent

LABOUR: Labour is the mental or physical efforts of man which is directed towards the
production of goods and services. Examples of labor are the work of farmers, carpenters, teachers,
policemen etc.

Features of Labour

Labour is mobile i.e. can move from one location to another Labour controls other factors of
production

Labour has feelings

Labour requires motivation

Labour is not fixed Labour is a human factor

CAPITAL: Capital is defined as the man made assets used in production. It is the man made
wealth used in the production of other goods. The reward for capital is “interest”

Features of Capital

Capital is man made

Capital is durable

Capital exist in different forms

It promotes division of labour

Capital exist in different forms

ENTREPRENEURS: The entrepreneur is the person who combines the all other factors of
production. He coordinates and directs the factors of production to produce goods and services.

Features of Entrepreneur

The entrepreneur takes the risk in a business

He coordinates and manages all the other factors of production

The entrepreneur makes the decision in the organization Provides the capital

The reward for an entrepreneur is “profit”

Week 5 & 6

Content

Types and Uses of Farm Records Record and Its Benefits

Farm Accounts

Types and Importance of Farm Accounts

Types of Farm Records

1. Cash book receipts and payment records

Cash book – Book of financial transactions (income and expenses)

Receipts and payments – There are two types ( cheque and cash) and they are recorded in the cash
book

Receipts are recorded on the left side while payments are recorded on the right side

Cash book content – Date column, source of income received or expenditure made.

2. Annual Valuation

Farmers keep statement of the value of stocks at the beginning and end of the year Every valuation
is based on market value or production cost

3. Farm Diary

Record of daily activities and events of the farm Reference book to obtain information about the
farm

It also shows movement of staff and visitors to the farm, amount of rainfall and losses to thieves.

4. Farm Inventory

This is the listing of all assets on the farm and their money worth or value. It is a record that gives
the full list of assets and liabilities of a farm in both physical and monetary terms. This is carried
out at the close of farming season and at the beginning. The information on the inventory shows
– Quantity of item

– Date of Purchase

– Price

– Other useful information

How to take inventory

1. Identify the assets and liabilities

2. Itemize the above

3. Count each of the assets physically

4. Assign monetary value to each asset

Importance of Inventory record

Helps in periodic checking of the movement of farm tools and equipment

Assists in Farm evaluation, farm planning and budgeting Helps in assessment of net worth of farm

Provides data for preparation of balance sheet Helps in identifying damaged tools

5. Farm Budget

This is the Estimated future income and expenditure of farm operation

Budgeting technique helps farmer to select the most profitable plan

Helps to check profitability of any economic change in farm plan

6. Yield or Production record

It shows the yield of crops cultivated on the farm It shows the produce from the livestock or
poultry It may help in variety selection

7. Payroll or Labour Record

Shows the amount and types of labour hired or employed to work on the farm

Shows the rates and wages paid

Helps in profit and loss account

8. Farm Input Utilization Record

It shows the input acquired and utilized during the period. It shows the levels of input application

It is used in combination with output record to determine resource productivity.

9. Profit and Loss Account – This type of account is prepared at the end of a business period
usually a year by the farmer for the purpose of knowing whether his business is making profit or
loss. Expenses are recorded on the left side (debit) while receipts or sales are recorded on the right
side (credit).

Farm Accounts

Farm Accounts are statements of money paid out or received for goods and services used in
farming business. Money is received due to sales of farm produce or loans from other sources
while money is paid out for purchases of farm produce or settlement

money is paid out for purchases of farm produce or settlement

Grand total 30,000:00

of debts. At the end of a given period, the farmer should be able to know whether the business is
yielding profits or losses.

Types of Farm Accounts

1. Sales Account – This shows the details of produce sold which also includes – type of produce,
quantity sold, amount paid by customer, date sold and customer’s information. Also known as
sales and receipt account.

2. Purchase Account – This shows the details of all items purchased for use on the farm. It
includes name of input, date purchased, number of input or quantity and cost of input.

3. Farm Valuation – Farm valuation is carried out to get the time value of the farm. It is carried out
at the beginning and end of the accounting or production [Link] of the farm at the
beginning is known as Opening Valuation while at the end of the production year is known as
Closing Valuation.

Importance of Farm Valuation

A good valuation will determine the disposable value of the farm when the need arises
useful for tax assessment

Used to prepare balance sheet

4. Cash Analysis Account – This shows the details of income and expenditure of a farm over a
given period of time. Sales and receipts are entered on the left hand while purchases and receipts
are entered on the right hand. Total received is recorded at the bottom of the left hand and Total
paid is recorded at the bottom of the right hand.

Importance of Cash Analysis Account

Helps in planning of farm activities Useful in preparing balance sheet

Used in the preparation of profit and loss account

5. Farm Income Statement – It comprises all farm receipts and expenses carried out on the farm
over a specific period of time. It gives an accurate profitability of the farm.

6. Profit and Loss Account – This type of account is prepared at the end of a business period
usually a year by the farmer for the purpose of knowing whether his business is making profit or
loss. Expenses are recorded on the left side (debit) while receipts or sales are recorded on the right
side (credit).

Importance of Profit and Loss Account

Helps to detect if the farm is making profit or loss

Aids future planning of the farm for better results

Helps to determine overall performance of the farm at the end of the business year.

Week 7

AGRICULTURE IN STOCK EXCHANGE

What is a Stock?

A stock is a type of security that signifies ownership in a corporation and represents a claim on
part of the corporation’s assets and earnings. “A stock is a share in the ownership of a company.
There are two main types of stock: common and preferred. Common stock usually entitles the
owner to vote at shareholders’ meetings and to receive dividends.

Stock Exchange
Stock exchange is a corporation or mutual organization which provides trading facilities for stock
brokers and traders to trade on stock and other [Link] is a market where shares and stock and
other securities are bought. The securities traded on stock include shares issued by the companies,
units trust, derivatives, pooled department and bonds.

People involved in Stock Exchange

The broker – A broker acts as an agent for firms and/or individuals who want to buy or sell
securities. They instruct him to buy or sell stocks and shares on their behalf. They charge
commission for the services rendered. They give advice on what type of stock or shares to buy.

The jobbers – These are people who specialize in a particular type of stocks and shares. They acts
as middlemen who do not buy or sell securities direct from members of the public but through
brokers who act as their agent. The jobbers quote two different prices, one for buying and a higher
one for selling. The difference between the jobbers buying and selling price is called the Jobber
turn or his profit.

Authorized clerks – These are salaried office workers who are employed by brokers and jobbers.
They are called authorized clerks because they have authority to buy and sell securities on behalf
of their principals.

Investors – These are people or institute that buys stock or shares for the sake of investment.

Speculators – These are people who buy shares not because of regular income they could obtain
but because of the profit they will make from fluctuation of prices. Those who buy hoping the
prices would fall are called Bulls while those who sell shares because they expect the price to fall
are called Bears.

Importance of Stock Exchange in Agriculture

1. It encourages investment in agriculture

2. It helps raise capital for business

3. It encourages cooperative or contract farming

4. It creates investment opportunities for small scale farmers

5. Stock exchange makes long term loans in form of debentures

available to commercial farmers

6. It encourages savings as stock and shares bought can be

kept and sold in the future

7. It is a means of measuring the wealth of a company 8. It helps to facilitate the growth of
companies

MEANING OF STOCK EXCHANGE

A Stock exchange is an organization that provides a market place where investigators may buy and sell shares of a
wide range of companies. It is a market where sales and purchase of securities takes place.
SOME TERMS USED IN STOCK EXCHANGE
Shares: this is a unit of stock. It is an indivisible unit of capital that expresses the ownership relationship between
the company and the holder.

Stock: This is the money called capital raised by a corporations-or organizations through the sale and distribution
of parts or all of the enterprise to several part owners.

Stockholders or Shareholders: These are potentials buyers who legally own one or more shares of stock of a joint
stock company.

Stock Brokers: These are the representatives of individual shareholders which are licensed to buy and sell of
company shares

PRIVILEGE TO RIGHTS OF STOCKHOLDERS

1. They are entitled to vote during the election of the board of directors
2. They are entitled to share in the distribution of the company’s profit
3. They are entitled to purchase new shares of the company
4. They are entitled to purchase the company assets when it becomes financially unviable

Examples of Agric Business Enterprises, whose shares are traded on the Nigeria Stock Exchange NSE are;
1. Livestock Feeds Plc 2. Nigerian Breweries Plc. 3. Nestle Nigeria Plc
4. Nigerian Bottling Co. Plc. 5. Cadbury Nigeria Plc. 6. Unilever Nigeria Plc
7. Flour Mills of Nigeria Plc. 8. Dunlop Nigeria Plc. 9. Ecobank Nigeria Plc

IMPORTANCE OF STOCK EXCHANGE IN AGRICULTURE

1. Raising Capital for Agricbusiness: Agricultural enterprises can raise money through offering shares for
sale to the general public in the stock exchange
2. Redistribution of Wealth: When businesses in which farmers invested their money through purchase of
shares declare profit, such investors share on the profit and wealth of these businesses through their stock
prices and dividents
3. Corporate Governance: Agricultural enterprises operating under the stock exchange usually have more
improved management standards and efficiency records than privately owned enterprises.
4. Creates Investment Opportunity for small investors: Investing in shares is open to large and small scale
farmers because individuals buy the number of shares that they can afford. Therefore both small holder
 farmers and commercial farmers invest in the same enterprise and enjoy the some privileges and rate of
returns.
5. Indicator of the State of Economy: Shares prices tend to rise or remain stable when companies and the
economy show signs of stability and growth, a depresses economy with financial crisis may lead to
crashing of the stock market. Therefore the movement of the share prices can serve as an indicator of the
state of a national economy.

WEEK 9 DATE_______________
TOPIC: EXPORT PROMOTION IN AGRICULTURE
CONTENT
• Meaning of Export Promotion
• Activities of Export Promotion
• Examples of Nigeria Export Promotion
• Importance of export promotion

MEANING OF EXPORT PROMOTION

The meaning of Export Promotion in Agriculture is a set of activities that are directed at increasing the sales of
agricultural products to other countries. These activities include:
1. Identification of products and markets
2. Location of new investment opportunities
3. Provision of trade information
4. Provision of support services e.g assistance with export procedures, product quality, export financing,
transportation etc
5. Organizing trade fairs and trade missions

Trade fairs are exhibitions organized to bring together producers and buyers in an atmosphere conducive to
transact business

Trade missions consist of group of persons (government representatives and delegates of private business
sector) who visit a foreign country with the aim of promoting trade.

Export promotions are responsibilities of organizations referred-to as Trade Promotion Organization

(TPO). NEPC Nigerian export promotion council is the federal government agency responsible for promoting
trade in Nigerian goods. Therefore Nigerian TPO is NEPC. NEPC was established through promulgation of the
Nigerian Export Promotion Act No 26 of 1976 and inaugurated in March 1977.

The Act was however amended in 1979, 1986, 1988 and 1992 to enhance its performance, minimize bureaucracy
and increase its autonomy in dealing with members of organized private sectors involved in exportation.

List of some Agricultural Export products exported from Nigeria are: cassava, cashew nut, charcoal, chillies,
cocoa, beans, coffee, cotton lint, fish, ginger, groundnut, gum Arabic, horns, kolanut, poultry, rubber, sesame seed,
sheanuts, shrimps, skins, snails, tobacco, vegetable oil, wheat pellets, yam, grasscutter.

PROCESSED FOODS, VEGETABLES AND SPICES

They are: ginger, garlic, ukazi, cassava flour, garri, locust beans, yam flour, plantain flour, ground rice, ground
melon, dehydrated vegetables.

HORTICULTURE PRODUCTS
Okro, mange-tout (French beans), chillies, mangoes, pineaaples, sugar cane, cut-live-flowers.

IMPORTANCE OF EXPORT PROMOTION

1. It provides employment opportunities and means of livelihoods to workers in the production, processing,
transportation and export industries
2. It provides foreign exchange for the exporter and the country
3. It increases farmers income
4. It encourages bilateral and multilateral trade relationship among nations of the world

EXPORT PROHIBITIONS
This is aimed at regulating export trade and protecting natural and agricultural resources from
exploitation. According to the Nigerian Customs Service, the following produce are prohibited from export;
1. Wet blue and all unfinished leather
2. Unprocessed rubber latex and lumps
3. Wild life animals classified as endangered species and their products.