INTERFERENCE

Introduction:

The light is a form of energy that causes the sensation of sight. Light has particle nature
as well as wave nature, so it has dual nature. According to Newton’s theory, the light propagates
in the form of small particles called corpuscles which travel with high velocities in straight lines
and cast shadows behind the obstacles. It shows the particle nature of light. Huygens’s wave
theory says that light propagates in the form of waves. Planck’s quantum theory confirmed that
light propagated in the form of waves but when interacting with material particles of tiny size
such as electrons, it exhibits particle in nature. Some of the theories like Compton and Planck’s
confirm that light propagated in the form of particles. Some optical phenomenon like
interference and diffraction show that light has wave nature. The polarization confirms that the
light waves are transverse in nature. Interference is due to superposition of waves from two
coherent sources while diffraction is due to the superposition of waves from different parts on
the same wave front.

Definition: The phenomenon of modification or redistribution of light intensity due to

superposition of two or more waves is called Interference.
Examples: Soap bubble, Oil film.

 Superposition Principle: This principle states that the resultant displacement of a particle of
the medium acted upon by two or more waves simultaneously is the algebraic sum of the
displacements of the same particle due to individual waves.

R = y 1 ± y2

i. Constructive interference: When a crest of one wave form falls on the crest of another wave
form then the resultant displacement is equal to sum of the displacements of individual waves.
Such type of interference is called as constructive interference.

R = y 1 + y2

ii. Destructive interference: When a crest of one wave form falls on the trough of another wave
form then the resultant displacement is equal to difference of the displacements of individual
waves. Such type of interference is called as destructive interference.

R = y1 - y2

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 1

 Coherence: The two sources which maintain zero or constant phase difference between
themselves are known as coherent sources. The phenomenon is known as coherence. The two
waves are said to be coherent when they have same wavelength, same amplitude, same
frequency & constant phase difference. They are two types of coherence.

1. Spatial coherence
2. Temporal coherence
1. Spatial coherence: If a constant phase difference exists at difference points in space
between the waves over a time t, then they are said to be spatially coherent.
2. Temporal coherence: If the phase difference between the two fields is constant during the
period normally covered by observations, then the wave is said to be temporally coherent.

 Conditions of Interference:
1. The two sources should be coherent.
2. The two sources must be emit continues waves of same wavelength, same frequency and
same amplitude.
3. The distance between two sources should be small.
4. The distance between two sources & screen should be large.
5. To view the interference fringes the background should be dark.
6. The source should be monochromatic.
7. The sources must be narrow i.e. they must be extremely small.

 Young’s double slit experiment:

In 1801, Thomas Young first demonstrated experimentally the phenomenon of

interference of light. He allowed the sunlight to pass through a pin hole, ‘S’ and then at some
distance through two sufficiently close pin holes S 1 and S2 in an opaque screen. The interference
pattern was observed on a screen XY. He observed few colored bright & dark fringes on the
screen. Now a day, to increase the brightness pin holes S 1 & S2 are replaced by narrow slits,
moreover to increase the number of fringes, sunlight is replaced by monochromatic light.

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 2

If y1 & y2 are the displacements of the waves then

y1= a1 sin t 1

y2= a2 sin (t +  2

According to the principle of superposition the resultant displacement is equal to the sum of the
displacements due to each wave

y = y1+y2

= a1 sin t + a2 sin (t + 

a1 sin t + a2 sin t cos a2 sin  cos t

y = sin t (a1+ a2 cos a2 sin cos t 3

Let Rcosθ = a1+ a2 cos 

Rsinθ = a2 sin 

y = Rcosθ sin t + Rsinθ cos t

y = R sin (t + θ

The resultant amplitude can be obtained by squaring equations 4 & 5

R2sin2 θ + R2cos2 θ = (a1+ a2 cos a2 sin  

R2 = a12 + a22cos2a1a2cos a22sin2

R2 = a12 + a22a1a2cos 

The resultant intensity at P is given by square of the amplitude ‘R’. Thus

I = R2 = a12 + a22a1a2cos 

Case i: Condition for maximum intensity when cos  = +1

 = 2nπ (or) nλ where n= 0, 1, 2, 3,......
Equation 8 becomes I = a12 + a22a1a2
Imax = (a1+ a2)2
Case ii: Condition for minimum intensity when cos  = 1
𝜆
 = (2n+1)π (or) (2n+1)2 where n= 0, 1, 2, 3,......
Equation 8 becomes I = a12 + a22a1a2
Imin = (a1 a2)2

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 3

 Interference in thin films due to reflected light (or) Cosine law:

Let ‘GH’ & ‘G1H1’ be the two surfaces of a transparent film of uniform thickness ‘t’ and
refractive index ‘μ’ as shown in the above figure. Suppose a ray ‘AB’ be incident on its upper
surface. This ray is partly reflected along ‘BR’ and refracted along ‘BC’. After one internal
reflection at ‘C’ we obtain the ray ‘CD’. After refraction at ‘D’ the ray finally emerges out along
‘DR1’ in air. Obviously ‘BR’ is parallel to ‘DR1’.

Our aim is to find out the effective path difference between the rays ‘BR’ & ‘DR 1’. For this
purpose we draw a normal ‘DE’ on ‘DR’ and a normal ‘BF’ on ‘DC’. We also produce ‘DC’ in
the backward direction which meet the ‘BQ’ produced at ‘P’.

From the figure, ∠ABN = i (angle of incidence)

∠QBC = r (angle of refraction)

The optical path difference between the two reflected light rays is given by

 = path of (BC+CD) in the film − path of BE in air

 = μ (BC+CD) − BE 

From Snell’s law

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖
μ = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟

𝐵𝐸
From le BDE, sin i = 𝐵𝐷

𝐷𝐹
le BDF, sin r = 𝐵𝐷

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 𝐵𝐸
∴ μ = 𝐷𝐹

BE = μ (DF) 

Substitute equation  in 

 = μ (BC+CD) – μ (DF)

= μ [BC+CD − DF]

= μ [BC+CF] (from the diagram)

= μ [PC+CF] (from the isosceles le BPF)

= μ [PF] 
𝑃𝐹
From the le BPF, cos r = 𝐵𝑃
PF = BP cos r
PF = 2tcos r 
Substitute equation  in 

 = 2μtcos r 

The optical path difference is given by equation  and is usually called as Cosine law. It
should be remember that a ray reflected at a surface backed by a denser medium suffers an
𝜆
abrupt phase change of π, which is equivalent to a path difference of 2.

𝜆
∴  = 2μtcosr ± 2 

Condition for maxima: We know that the maxima occurs when the path difference = nλ
𝜆
2μtcosr ± 2 = nλ
𝜆
2μtcosr = nλ ±
2
𝜆
2μtcosr = (2n+1) 2 

If this condition is fulfilled the film will appear bright in the reflected light.

𝜆
Condition for minima: We know that the minima occurs when the path difference = (2n+1)
2
𝜆 𝜆
2μtcosr ± 2 = (2n+1) 2
𝜆 𝜆
2μtcosr = (2n+1) 2 ± 2
2μtcosr = nλ 

If this condition is fulfilled the film will appear dark in the reflected light.

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 5

 Newton’s Rings:

When a Plano convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate, an air
film of gradually increasing thickness is formed between the two. The thickness of the film at the
point of contact is zero. If monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally and the film is viewed
in the reflected light, alternate dark & bright rings around the point of contact between the lens
and glass plate are seen. Since the phenomenon was first described by Newton that is why the
rings are known as Newton’s rings.

Newton’s rings are formed due to interference between the waves reflected from the top
and bottom surfaces of the air film formed between the plates. As the rings are observed in the
reflected light, the path difference between them is given by
𝜆
 = 2μtcosr + 2 
For air film μ=1and for normal incidence r=0
𝜆
 = 2t + 2 
For bright rings, = nλ
𝜆
2t + 2 = nλ
𝜆
2t = (2n ̶ 1)  Where n= 1, 2, 3, ……
2
𝜆
For darks rings, = (2n+1) 2
𝜆 𝜆
2t + 2 = (2n+1) 2
2t = nλ  Where n= 1, 2, 3, ……
Now we shall calculate the diameters of dark & bright rings. Let LOL' is
the part of spherical surface with center at ‘C’. Let ‘R’ be the radius of
curvature and ‘r’ be the radius of rings corresponding to the constant film
thickness‘t’.
From the properties of circles
NO x ND = NP x NQ

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 t (2R ̶ t) = r x r
2Rt ̶ t2 = r2
As t is very small, t 2 is very very small
2Rt = r2
𝑟2
t = 2𝑅 
For bright rings,
𝑟2 𝜆
2 x 2𝑅 = (2n ̶ 1) 2
𝑟2 (2𝑛−1)𝜆
=
𝑅 2

Replacing ‘r’ by ‘D/2’ we get the diameter of the nth bright ring,
𝐷2 (2𝑛−1)𝜆𝑅
=
4 2
2
𝐷 = (2𝑛 − 1)2𝜆𝑅
𝐷 = √2𝜆𝑅. √(2𝑛 − 1)
∴ 𝐷 ∝ √(2𝑛 − 1) 
Thus the diameters of the bright rings are proportional to square root of the odd natural numbers.
For dark rings,
𝑟2
2 x 2𝑅 = n𝜆
𝑟 2 = n𝜆𝑅
Replacing ‘r’ by ‘D/2’ we get the diameter of the nth dark ring,
𝐷2 = 4n𝜆𝑅
𝐷 = 2√𝑛𝜆𝑅
∴ 𝐷 ∝ √𝑛 
Thus the diameters of the dark rings are proportional to square root of the natural numbers.
Determination of wave length of sodium light:

Let ‘R’ be the radius of curvature of the surface in contact with the plate, ‘𝜆’ is the
wavelength of the light used. Let ‘Dn’ & ‘Dn+P’ be the diameters of nth & (n+p)th dark rings.

Then 𝐷𝑛2 = 4n𝜆𝑅

2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 = 4(n+p)𝜆𝑅
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 ̶ 𝐷𝑛2 = 4p𝜆𝑅
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2
̶ 𝐷𝑛
∴𝜆= 
4p𝑅

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 7

Refractive index of a liquid:

First of all the experiment is performed when there is an air film between the glass plate
& plano convex lens. The system is placed in a metal container. The diameters of n th & (n+p)th
dark rings are determined with the help of a travelling microscope.

Then 𝐷𝑛2 = 4n𝜆𝑅

2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 = 4(n+p)𝜆𝑅
2
∴ 𝐷𝑛+𝑝 ̶ 𝐷𝑛2 = 4p𝜆𝑅 
Now the liquid whose refractive index is to be determined is poured in the container
without disturbing the whole arrangement. Again the diameters of nth & (n+p)th dark rings are
determined.
4n𝜆𝑅
Then (𝐷𝑛′ )2 = 𝜇

′ 4(n+p)𝜆𝑅
(𝐷𝑛+𝑝 )2 = 𝜇

′ 4p𝜆𝑅
∴ (𝐷𝑛+𝑝 )2 − (𝐷𝑛′ )2 = 
𝜇

Dividing equation  with equation  we get

2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2
̶ 𝐷𝑛
∴𝜇= ′ ′ )2 11
(𝐷𝑛+𝑝 )2− (𝐷𝑛

 Types of Interference:
The interference phenomena is divided into two classes, namely
(i) Division of wavefront
(ii) Division of amplitude.

(i) Division of wavefront:

In this case the wavefront is divided into two parts by making the phenomenon of
reflection or refraction.
Example: Young’s double slit experiment, Fresnel’s Biprism experiment, etc.,

(ii) Division of amplitude:

In this case the amplitude of incident light is divided into two parts either by parallel
reflection or refraction.
Example: Newton’s rings experiment, Michelson’s interferometer experiment, etc.,



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 DIFFRACTION
Introduction:

In 1665, Grimaldi observed that the shadow of a thin wire in a beam of light was much
broader. He pointed out that when light incident on a small aperture or an obstacle, the edges of
the shadow which is produced are never perfectly defined, irrespective of the edges of the
obstacle. That means shadow is never a true geometrical shadow. Suppose a narrow slit is placed
parallel to the straight edge of an obstacle and a screen is kept immediately behind the obstacle
on which a shadow is formed. It was observed that some of the light enters the geometrical
shadow. Besides, several bands appear outside the geometrical shadow and these gradually get
nearer together as we move further away from the edge until they fade away into an uniform
illumination. Newton and Hooke had also observed the same phenomena and gave the
explanation on Corpuscular theory of light, but it was recognized almost 100 years later when
Huygen’s wave theory of light was surfaced. The phenomena dealing with the bending of light
waves around the edge of an obstacle is called diffraction.

Definition: The phenomenon of bending of light waves around the edges of an obstacle is called
diffraction. The diffraction produces bright and dark fringes of varying intensity, called
diffraction pattern.

There are two types of diffraction. They are

i) Fraunhofer’s diffraction

ii) Fresnel’s diffraction

 Differences between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction:

Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction

1. The source and screen are placed at 1. The source and screen are placed
finite distances from the obstacle. at infinite distances from the
obstacle.
2. No lens is used to focus the rays. 2. Converging lens is used to focus
the parallel rays.

3. The wavefront undergoing 3. The wavefront undergoing

diffraction is either spherical or diffraction is a plane wavefront.
cylindrical.

4. Mathematical investigations are 4. Mathematical investigations are

complicated. easy.

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 Differences between Interference and Diffraction:

Interference Diffraction
1. The interaction takes place between 1. The interaction takes place between the
two separate wavefronts originating secondary wavelets originating from
from the coherent sources. different points of the same wave front.

2. The fringe width may or may not be 2. The fringe widths of various fringes are
equal. never equal.

3. All the bright fringes have the same 3. The bright fringes are of varying
intensity. intensity.

4. The regions of minimum intensity are 4. The regions of minimum intensity are
perfectly dark. not perfectly dark.

 Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit:

Consider a slit AB of width ‘a’ and the monochromatic source of light ‘S’ emitting the waves
incident on a convex lens L1. The source is placed at the focal point of convex lens so that it
becomes parallel beam and is incident normally on the slit AB. The light emerged is focused by a
convex lens on screen ‘XY’ placed at the focal point of lens L2 as show in the figure.
According to Huygen’s wave theory each point of AB sends out secondary wavelets in all
directions. The rays proceeding in the same direction as that of incident ray are focused at point
Po and are in same phase, while the diffracted rays through an angle ‘’ are focused at point P.
The intensity at point P is maximum or minimum depending upon the path difference between
the rays coming from A and B. Now we shall calculate the intensity at point P.
Let us assume that, the width of the slit is divided into ‘n’ equal parts and the amplitude of
each wave form each part is A. The path difference between the secondary wavelets from A and
B in the direction  is BC = AB sin  = a sin 

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 2
The corresponding phase difference,  = 𝑎 sin  
𝜆

Hence the phase difference between any two consecutive slits is

2
 𝑎 sin 
d= = 𝜆

𝑛 𝑛

Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude is given by
𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛( ) 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛( )
2 𝜆
R= 𝑑 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑖𝑛( ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛( )
2 𝜆𝑛

𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛
R= 𝛽  where β =
𝑆𝑖𝑛( ) 𝜆
𝑛

𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
when ‘n’ is very large then ( 𝑛 ) is small, therefore sin( 𝑛 ) = . Hence,
𝑛
𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽
R= 𝛽
𝑆𝑖𝑛( )
𝑛

𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽
R= 𝛽
( )
𝑛

𝑛𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽

R= =
𝛽 𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
Therefore the resultant amplitude, R = 𝐴( ) 
𝛽

𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 β
The intensity at point ‘P’ is I = 𝑅2 = 𝛽2

𝑠𝑖𝑛 2β
I = 𝑅2 =𝐼0 [ ] where, 𝐼0 = 𝐴2 
𝛽2

The intensity ‘I’ depends upon the value of ‘β’.

Case (i): Condition for central maxima
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛
The intensity depends upon the amplitude, R = 𝐴( 𝛽
) where β = 𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
If   0 then β  0, therefore  1 (Since β  0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 ≈ 𝛽)
𝛽

Applying this condition to equation, we get I = I0, which is the condition for central maxima.
Case (ii): Condition for minima
The intensity will be minimum, when 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 = 0  𝛽 =  m, but not 𝛽 = 0
𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛
If 𝛽 =  m  =  m
𝜆

∴ a 𝑠𝑖𝑛 =  m𝜆, where m=1, 2, 3,….. 

This is the condition for minimum intensity.
𝜆
The first order minima occur at  = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝑎

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 2𝜆
Second order minima occur at  = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 𝑎 ) and soon…….
Case (iii): Condition for secondary maxima
In addition to the central maxima at 𝛽 = 0, there are secondary maxima between
equally spaced minima. The condition for secondary maxima can be obtained by differentiating
𝑑𝐼
equation  with respect to 𝛽 and equating to zero. i.e., 𝑑𝛽 = 0.
𝑑𝐼 𝑑 𝐼 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2 𝛽
= 𝑑𝛽 [ 0 𝛽2 ] = 0
𝑑𝛽
2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 (𝛽 cos 𝛽 –𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽)
= 𝐼0 × × =0
𝛽 𝛽2

∴ sin𝛽 = 0 or (𝛽 cos 𝛽 – 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽) = 0

But the condition for the minima is sin𝛽 = 0. So, the condition for the maxima is
(𝛽 cos 𝛽 – 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽) = 0
𝛽 cos 𝛽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝛽 = tan 𝛽 
The equation 𝛽 = tan 𝛽 is called transcendental equation.
The values of 𝛽 satisfying the above equation are obtained graphically. If we draw the graph
between y = 𝛽 and y = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 then the points of intersection of these two curves gives the
maximum intensity as show in the figure.

Fig. The graph between y = 𝛽 and y = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽

The intensity distribution due to the diffraction at a single slit is shown in the following figure.
The graph consists of a central maximum with minima and secondary maxima alternatively.

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 β

Fig. Intensity distribution due to the diffraction at a single slit.

Expression for width of central maxima:

We know that the condition for central minima is a sin  = mλ

𝜆
For m = 1, Sin  = 𝑎

If 𝑥 is the half width of central bright maxima and D is the distance between the slit and the
screen then
𝑥
Sin  = 𝐷
𝑥 𝜆
=𝑎
𝐷
𝜆𝐷
𝑥= 𝑎
2𝜆𝐷
Hence the width of central maxima, 2𝑥 = 𝑎

If the lens (L2) is nearer to the slit or the screen is far away from the lens (L 2) then
𝑥
Sin  = 𝑓 (f is the focal length of lens L2)

𝜆
We know that, Sin  = 𝑎

𝑥 𝜆
=𝑎
𝑓

𝜆𝑓
∴ 𝑥= 𝑎

This means that the fringe width increases with decreasing slit width (a). That is when slit
becomes narrower, the fringe becomes wide. Also for a given value of ‘a’, the fringe width is
proportional to the wavelength ‘λ’. If the wavelength is higher, the fringes become wider.

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 13

Fraunhofer diffraction due to double slit:

Consider AB and CD, two parallel slits of equal width ‘a’ and separated by a distance‘d’. The
distance between corresponding points of two slits is (a+d). Let a parallel beam of
monochromatic light of wavelength ‘’ be incident normally upon the two slits. The light
diffracted from these slits is focused on the screen ‘XY’ by a lens L2 placed at its focal plane as
shown in the figure. The diffraction at the two slits is the combination of diffraction as well as
interference. That is, the pattern on the screen is diffraction pattern due to single slit on which a
system of interference fringes is superposed.

If we consider the secondary waves travelling in a direction inclined at an angle ‘’ with the
initial direction, then from the theory of diffraction at single slit the resultant amplitude due to all
the wavelets diffracted from each slit is
 Sin  a sin
R = A  where  =
   
 Sin 
Let S1and S2 be the midpoints of the slits and each source send a wavelet of amplitude A  
 

in a direction ‘’. Then the resultant amplitude at a point on the screen will be the result of
 Sin 
interference between the two waves of amplitude A  and having a phase difference .
  

The path difference between the wavelets from S1 and S2 in the direction ‘’ is

S2Q = (a+d)sin
2
The corresponding phase difference,  = (a  d ) sin 


Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 14

Applying the cosine rule for the triangle OGH

OH2 =OG2 + GH2 – 2 × OG × GH × Cos (180 - )

2

+  A sin   + 2  A sin   Cos (180 - )

2 2
 sin  
R2 = A  
      

2
 sin  
=2  A   1 cos 
 

 2 
2
2  sin  
I = R = 4 A cos 2
  

Therefore the resultant intensity depends upon two factors:

2
 sin  
(i)  A gives the diffraction pattern due to single slit.
  
 
(ii) cos 2  gives the interference pattern due to light waves of the same amplitude from the
2
two slits.
2
 sin  
The diffraction term  A   gives the central maximum in the direction  = 0 and having
 
secondary maxima of decreasing intensity on either side as shown in Fig (a).

The minima are obtained in the direction given by Sin  = 0, but   0

 =  m, m = 1, 2, 3, ........
a sin =  m

a sin =  m

The positions of secondary maxima appears at

=  3
2 ,  5
2 ,  72 , .............
 
The term cos 2   gives a set of equidistant dark and bright fringes due to interference as shown
2
in Fig (b). The maxima are obtained in the direction given by

 2 = 1
cos 2 


2 =  n

a  d sin  =  n

a  d sin  =  n , where n= 0,1,2,3,..........

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 15

Therefore the intensity distribution of Fraunhofer diffraction due to double slit is the product of a
 
2
 Sin 
constant term 4, diffraction term  A  
and the interference cos 2   as shown in Fig. (c).
 2

Fig. Intensity distribution due to the diffraction at double slit

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 16

Fraunhofer diffraction due to N slits:

Consider the slits AB, CD, EF, GH, IJ of width ‘a’ are separated by a distance d . The sum of the
two widths (a + d) is called the grating element. It is also the distance between any two
successive slits. Let plane waves of monochromatic light of wavelength ‘’ be incident normally
on the grating. By Huygens's principle each of the infinite points in the slits sends secondary
wavelets in all directions. These secondary wavelets travelling in the same direction of the
incident light will come to focus at point P0 of the screen. The screen ‘MN’ placed at a focal
plane of the convex lens. The point P0 will be central maxima.

Now consider the secondary waves travelling in a direction inclined at an angle  with
the section of the incident light. These waves reach the point P 1 on passing through the convex
lens in different phases. The intensity at point P 1 may be obtained by applying the theory of
Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit.

If there are N slits, then we have N diffracted waves, one each from the middle point of the slits.
The path difference between the two consecutive slits is (a + d) sin. The corresponding phase
difference would be
2
(a  d )Sin = 2γ

It is clear from the above equation that the phase difference between two successive waves is
constant and is equal to 2. Thus the resultant amplitude and intensity at point P 1 due the waves
from N slits in the direction  can be obtained by using the method of vector addition and is
given by
A sin  SinN
R=
 sin 
A 2 sin 2  Sin 2 N
⸫ I = R2 = { }
2 sin 2 

 A 2 Sin 2  
In above equation, the factor    gives the intensity distribution pattern due to a single slit,
2
 
 2
N 
while the factor  Sin
Sin 2
 yields the intensity distribution due to N-slits.
 
Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 17
Diffraction Grating:

One of the most important applications of diffraction is the diffraction grating. It consists of a
very large number of obstacles of equal widths arranged parallel and at equal distances from one
another. Usually the width of the obstacles is the same as the width of the slits. An arrangement
consisting of a large number of equidistant parallel slits on a plane glass plate is called a
diffraction grating. The corresponding diffraction pattern is known as grating spectrum.

Diffraction gratings are used in one of the two ways, either as a reflection grating or as a
transmission grating. A reflection grating consists of a series of fine parallel grooves on a flat
metallic surface where as a transmission grating consists of a series of parallel rulings made on a
flat glass plate. The first diffraction grating consisting of very fine wires closely and equally
spaced was made by Fraunhofer in 1820. Rowland made a grating by ruling fine close lines of
about 20,000 on the surface of a glass with a fine diamond point.

A good quality of grating requires large number of slits of about 15,000 per inch. This is
achieved by ruling grooves with a diamond point on an optically transparent sheet of material.
The groove acts as opaque spaces. Another requirement for a good quality of grating is that the
lines should be as equally spaced as possible for which the pitch of the screw must be constant.
The distance between any two consecutive lines is‘d’. If width of each slit is ‘a’ then the
combined width of a ruling (a + d) is called grating element.

Grating Spectrum:

The positions of the principle maxima are given by the equation

(a + d) sin n = n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,......

This relation is called grating equation, where (a + d) is the grating element, n is the order of
maxima and ‘’ is wavelength of the incident light. The angle of diffraction depends upon the
wavelength ‘’ .The corresponding spectrum is called grating spectrum.

The principle maxima for m occurs at   0 and is independent of the wavelength ‘’ . The 1st
order maxima is obtained for n = 1 then (a + d) sin 1 = 

The 2nd order maxima is obtained n = 2 then (a + d) sin 2 = 2

and so on...

Thus different order bright images are obtained on both sides of the principle maxima as shown
in the Figure.

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 18

 For monochromatic light For white light

If we are using the white light then the central maximum will also be white. However for n  0,
in each order different colours are diffracted at different angles. The angles of diffraction are
different for different wavelengths. Thus by measuring the angles of diffraction for various
colours, we can determine the values of the wavelengths.

Possible orders with a grating:

We know that the positions of the principal maxima in a grating are given by the equation

(a + d) sin  = n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,......

(a  d ) sin 
or n =

where (a + d) is the grating element, n is the order of maxima and ‘ ’ is wavelength of
the incident light. The maximum angle of diffraction is 90 o, hence the maximum possible orders
are given by
(a  d ) sin 90 o (a  d )
nmax  
 
1  1 
nmax    N 
N  (a  d ) 
This is the expression for the maximum number of order possible with a grating. The order of the
spectrum is an integer.

Dispersive power of grating:

In a grating the wavelengths that are close together be a widely separated in angle as possible.
This is expressed in terms of dispersive power of grating. The dispersive power of a grating is
defined as the rate of variation of the angle of diffraction  with the wavelength .
d
The dispersive power of grating D = d

The condition for nth order principle maximum is (a + d) sin = n

Differentiating the above equation with respect to , we get

d n nN  1 
= (a  d ) cos  = cos    N 
d  ( a  d ) 

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 19

 n nN
Thus the dispersive power of grating is D = (a  d ) cos  = cos 

The dispersive power of the grating is (i) directly proportional to order n of the spectrum

(ii) inversely proportional to the grating element (a + d).

Resolving power:

When two objects are very nearer to each other, they may appear as one and it may be
impossible for the eye to see them separately. If we want to see as separate objects, we make use
of optical instruments such as telescopes, microscopes, prisms, gratings etc. The separation of
such close objects is termed as resolution. The ability of an optical instrument to form distinctly
separate images of two objects very close together is called its resolving power.

Rayleigh’s criterion of resolution:

In order to obtain a definite measure of the resolving power of an instrument, Rayleigh proposed
an arbitrary criterion which has been universally adopted. According to Rayleigh, two spectral
lines of equal intensity should be regarded as separate i.e., just resolved, if central maximum of
the diffraction pattern due to one coincides with the first secondary minimum or the other and
vice-versa. This is known as Rayleigh’s criterion of resolution and can be conveniently applied
to calculate the resolving power of a telescope, microscope, grating, prism etc.

To understand the criterion, consider the diffraction pattern due to two spectral lines of
wavelengths 1 and 2. If the difference in wavelengths of two spectral lines is so small, the
central maxima corresponding to the two wavelengths come close. Then, the intensity curves
show a sufficient overlapping and the two images cannot be distinguished as separate as shown
in Fig (a). If the difference in wavelengths is smaller such that the central maximum of one
coincides with the first minimum of the other, the resultant intensity curve shows a distinct dip in
the middle of the two central maxima as shown in the Fig (b). The difference in wavelength is
such that the central maximum of two wavelengths is quite separate and there is a distinct point
of zero intensity in the middle of the resultant intensity curve. Thus the two spectral lines appear
well resolved, that is distinctly separated as shown in the Fig (c).

Fig (b) Fig (c)

Fig (a)

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 20

Resolving power of grating:

The important property of a diffraction grating is its ability to separate spectral lines which have
close wavelengths. The capacity to form separate diffraction maxima of two wavelengths which
are very close to each other is called the resolving power of grating. If d is the smallest
difference in two wavelengths which are just resolvable by grating and  is the wavelength of
either of them or mean wavelength, then the resolving power of a grating is  d  .

Consider AB which represents a plane transmission grating having grating element (a+d) and N
be the total number of slits. Let a beam of light having two wavelengths  and (+ d) be
incident normally on the grating as shown in the Fig. XY is the field of view of the telescope, P1
is nth primary maximum of a spectral line of wavelength , at an angle of diffraction n and P2 is
nth primary maximum of a spectral line of wavelength (+ d), at an angle of diffraction n + dn.

According to Rayleigh’s criterion, the two wavelengths will be resolved if the position of P 2
corresponds to the first minimum of P1, i.e., the two lines will be resolved if the principle
maximum of ( + d) in a direction n+ dn falls over the first minimum of  in the same
direction n+ dn .

The principle maximum of  in the direction n is given by equation

(a + d) sin n = n

The equation of minima is N(a + d) sin n = m, where m has all integral values except 0, N,
2N and so on, because for these values of m, the condition for maxima is satisfied and different
maxima will be obtained. Thus first minimum adjacent to nth principle maximum is first
minimum in the direction (n+dn) can be obtained by substituting the value of m as (nN+1).
Therefore the first minimum in the direction (n+ dn) is given by equation

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 21

 N (a + d) sin (n+ dn) = (nN + 1) 1

The principle maximum of ( + d) in the direction (n+ dn) is given by

(a + d) sin (n+ dn) = n ( + d)

Multiplying the above equation by N we have

N (a + d) sin (n+ dn) = nN ( + d) 2

From equations 1 & 2 we get

(nN + 1) = nN ( + d)

nN +  = nN + nNd

 = nNd

= nN 3
d
This is the expression for the resolving power of a grating.

Dr. R. VIJAY, Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, URCET Page 22