BIOLOGY:

Coverage

01 Cellular/Organism Reproduction
Reproduction in Prokaryotes/Protists/Fungi
Reproduction in Plants
Reproduction in Animals
Cellular Reproduction
Chromosome Structure and Karyotyping
Meiosis Gametogenesis
Cell Cycle Control and Human Aberrations

02 Mendelian/Nonmendelian Genetics And Macromolecules(CL)

​ 01
​ 02
​ 03
​ 04

03 Macromolecules (P/NA) and the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

01
​ 02
​ 03
​ 04

04
01
​ 02
​ 03
​ 04
 1ST QUARTER

Reproduction in Prokaryotes/Protists/Fungi

Looking Back: you have learned that reproduction is an indispensable ability of organisms to produce viable
offspring of their kind that will allow the proliferation of their species, also evolution. The two major types are
sexual and asexual reproduction. How does one differ from the other?

1.​ Prokaryotic Reproduction

The set of illustration above portrays the most commonly understood mode of prokaryotic
reproduction, binary fission, an asexual mode of reproduction wherein offspring produced are the
exact clones of the parent organism. In this regard, parents and offspring share the same set of genetic
material as well as phenotypes or traits

E. coli typically reproduce through binary fission. This is an asexual process in which a single bacterial
cell divides into two identical daughter cells. In the image above you can see:

-​ A single E. coli cell elongating.

-​ Duplication of the genetic material (chromosomes).
-​ Formation of a septum (a dividing wall).
-​ Final separation into two genetically identical daughter cells.

The images depict this step-by-step division process, supporting that binary fission is taking place. In
binary fission, the parent cell in the first frame is typically a single, fully formed bacterial cell that
contains a single, complete circular chromosome. It usually appears slightly larger than the offspring
because it has not yet divided.

The offspring cells (in the last frame) are two separate, but genetically identical cells each having its
own complete copy of the genetic material. So, the main differences between the parent and the
offspring cells are in cell size (parent larger) and cell number (one vs. two), but genetically, they are
identical.

The figure below shows the processes involved in binary fission.

 The stages of binary fission. FtsZ pertaining to
filamentous temperature-sensitive mutant Z which
are proteins that direct the division of the nucleoid
or genetic material.

With binary fission being the common mode of

reproduction among prokaryotes, how then is it
possible to have varying bacterial strains with
different genetic make-up?

Gene transfer (GT) through conjugation enables

prokaryotes to exchange genetic material, leading
to variation in future generations. This can make a
previously harmless bacterium become pathogenic
by acquiring virulence genes. In contrast, asexual
reproduction in prokaryotes (like binary fission)
produces offspring identical to the parent, which is
beneficial for stable environments but risky if a
uniform trait makes them all vulnerable (e.g.,
lacking antibiotic resistance).

Beyond binary fission, prokaryotes have unique reproduction strategies. The cyanobacterium Staniera
sp. reproduces by making many baeocytes through multiple fissions. Budding occurs in
Planctomycetes, Cyanobacteria, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria. In Epulopiscium spp., cell division is
unequal: a mother cell forms two offspring cells at its ends, which develop inside the mother, emerge,
and eventually lead to the death of the mother cell.

2.​ Reproduction Among Protists

Protists, which include animal-like, plant-like, and fungi-like eukaryotic organisms, reproduce in
various ways, both asexually and sexually. Sexual reproduction in protists involves the formation of
haploid gametes (via meiosis) and their fusion (fertilization) to create a genetically diverse diploid
zygote. This process increases genetic variation and improves the chances of survival in changing
environments, compared to the limited variation from mutation in asexual reproduction.

These features of sexual reproduction afford the probability of increased genetic variation among
individual offspring and descendants, leaving more opportunities for them to survive varying
environmental conditions. This is considerably more favorable compared to the variation afforded only
by mutation among asexual organisms.
 Reproduction Mode Description Representative
Organisms

1. Binary Fusion Parent organism divides and produces 2 new cells. The Amoeba,
process however involves mitosis as protists have true nuclei Paramecium,
Euglana

2. Multiple Fission Parent organism divides into several daughter cells Amoeba,
Plasmodium

3. Plasmotomy Multinucleated protists produce multinucleate offsprings

only through cytoplasmic divisions without nuclear Opalina
divisions

4. Spore formation During unfavorable conditions. Some protists form spores

with protective capsules. Each spore eventually germinate Slime molds
and give rise to a new individual

5. Budding A small outgrowth develops and separates from a parent Arcella

organism (sarcodine)

6. Syngamy Involves the complete fusion of gametes that result to a

diploid zygote

a. isogamy Fusing of 2 similar gametes Monocystis

b. anisogamy Fusing of 2 dissimilar gametes Ceratium

c. oogamy Large non-motile gametes fertilized by smaller motile ones Plasmodium

7. Conjugation Temporary union of 2 individuals to exchange haploid Paramecium

pronuclear materials to form a zygote nucleus. Each
individual with a zygote nucleus undergoes binary fission

3.​ Fungi Reproduction

Know that: Unlike prokaryotes which heavily rely on asexual reproductive strategies, and most protists
which choose either sexual or asexual modes of reproduction, most fungi except for imperfect fungi
utilize both asexual and sexual modes.
 Fungi reproduce asexually through budding (in unicellular fungi), fragmentation, or the release of
mitotic spores like conidiospores and sporangiospores (in multicellular fungi). In harsh conditions,
they switch to sexual reproduction to increase genetic variation. This involves homothallic (same
mycelium) or heterothallic (different mycelia) mating types. The process includes plasmogamy
(fusion of cytoplasm), karyogamy (nuclear fusion to form a diploid zygote), and meiosis, which
produces haploid spores that grow into new fungi.

Reproduction in Plants
1.​ Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Plants can also reproduce without using gametes or mating types. Instead, they use parts like stems,
roots, or leaves to grow new plants. Since this is asexual reproduction, the new plants are exact copies of
the parent. These new plants usually grow faster and are tougher than seedlings.

​ 1.a Natural Asexual Reproduction

Grasses naturally spread using runners—special stems called stolons that grow across the ground.
When these touch the soil, they form new roots and leaves, helping the grass cover large areas. Other
specialized stems that may grow into new individuals include tubers (potatoes), rhizomes (ginger),
bulbs (onions), corms (gabi/taro). Specialized leaves may also be used such as that of kalanchoe
(kataka-taka) and specialized roots as well like that of ivy plant's adventitious roots.

Some plants can even make seeds without fertilization, a process called apomixis. Here, a diploid
ovule or part of the ovary develops into a seed on its own.

Did you notice that if you

pull out a grass plant, an
entire grass stretch in the
lawn goes with it? As
shown in the figures,
grasses are natural
runners.

1.b Artificial Sexual Production

Human beings have learned to utilize plants' capability of asexual reproduction and have created some
strategies that could mediate these processes, allowing farmers to further increase the rates of plant
propagation as well as create new plant varieties. These include grafting, cutting, layering and/or
marcotting, and micropropagation.
2.​ Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Sexual reproduction in plants is a key adaptation that helps them survive and evolve on land. It creates
genetic variation, which gives a population a better chance to develop helpful traits. For sexual
reproduction to happen, two things are needed: Haploid gametes or mating types and fertilization,
where gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote

Plants follow a pattern called Alternation of

Generations. This means they have two stages in
their life cycle: A haploid stage called the
gametophyte, which makes gametes, and a diploid
stage called the sporophyte, which grows from the
zygote after fertilization.
These stages alternate in every plant’s life cycle.

A collection of the basic characteristics of the sexual reproductive strategies is shown in the table below.

Non-vascular Vascular

Reproductive Angiosperms
Bryophytes Lycophytes, Gymnosperms
Characters
Pterophytes Monocots Dicots
(Liliopsida) (Magnoliopsida)

seeds
Dispersal spores spores
Units naked seeds enclosed seeds enclosed seeds -
-1 cotyledon 2 cotyledons

Reduced,
Gametophyte dominant independent reduced (microscopic), dependent on surrounding
(photosynthetic sporophyte tissue for nutrition
and free-living)

Reduced,
Sporophyte (dependent on dominant dominant
gametophyte for
nutrition)

Plants were able to live and grow on land thanks to helpful adaptations like the development of a
vascular system to transport water and nutrients. Later in their evolution, angiosperms (flowering
plants) became especially successful because they developed flowers, fruits, and seeds, which helped
them spread and reproduce more effectively.
Seeds play a big role in helping plants survive and spread. They protect and feed the young diploid
embryo inside. In contrast, some older plant groups have embryos that are more exposed to the
environment. Gymnosperms, like pine trees, also have seeds, but these are called naked seeds because
they aren’t enclosed in fruits. Angiosperms, or flowering plants, have an advantage because their seeds
are enclosed in fruits, which grow from the flower’s ovary.

Flowers are the plant’s reproductive organs. They make haploid gametes—egg and sperm cells. Over
time, flowers evolved many helpful traits like different shapes, colors, and scents that attract pollinators
such as insects and animals. Some plants rely on wind instead of animals for pollination.

Once a flower is pollinated, the egg cell inside the ovule becomes a seed. The flower parts like petals may
fall off, but the ovary grows and becomes a fruit. These fruits help spread seeds in different
ways—some are sweet and colorful so animals eat them, while others have features like hard coats,
wings, or propellers to travel by wind or water.

Finally, fertilization in angiosperms is more complex than in other plants. One example is double
fertilization, a unique process that you can explore further through the recommended link or
resource.

Functions of Floral Parts

Reproduction in Animals
Know that: For honeybees, some instances induce a bee population to reproduce through
parthenogenesis, an asexual mode of reproduction wherein haploid ova get to be fertilized even
without the presence of sperm cells.

Example:
When a colony loses all of its drone bees, leaving no one to fertilize the queen
bee's eggs, which will then develop and give rise to a progeny of all male drones.
1.​ Asexual Reproduction in Animals
Parthenogenesis doesn’t just happen in bees—it also occurs in other insects like wasps, ants, stick
insects, and aphids. Some small animals without backbones, like water fleas and rotifers, also use this
asexual method. In certain vertebrates (animals with backbones), parthenogenesis is natural and
effective—like in some fish, amphibians, and reptiles. For example, desert grassland whiptail lizards
(Aspidoscelis uniparens) are made up of only females.

Parthenogenesis can also happen when females are separated from males for a long time. This has been
seen in Komodo dragons and some hammerhead sharks. In these cases, it’s an adaptive response to
unusual situations. Other types of asexual reproduction in animals include fission, budding, and
fragmentation. ​

These methods are common in invertebrates. Note that regeneration isn’t just for healing lost body
parts (like a lizard’s tail); it can also create a whole new organism from part of an animal’s body.

2.​ Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Many animals reproduce only through sexual reproduction. This has led to the development of special
body parts called gonads, which make only two types of sex cells or gametes: egg cells from females
and sperm cells from males. Because of this, animals also needed to develop ways to bring these two
gametes together, like mating or copulation. Still, the basic rule in sexual reproduction is the same for all
animals: meiosis makes the gametes, and fertilization joins them to form a new organism.

Some animals are hermaphrodites, meaning they have both male and female parts and can make both
egg and sperm cells. A good example is the snail. Even though hermaphrodites can fertilize themselves,
they often still mate with others to mix genes and make stronger offspring.

There are two main ways fertilization happens. In external fertilization, the female lays her eggs in the
environment (often in water), and the male releases sperm over them. This happens outside the
parents’ bodies and is common in animals like fish, frogs, and squid. The parents must be close together
to make sure the gametes meet. In internal fertilization, the male puts sperm inside the female’s body
during mating. This is common in land animals, like mammals and reptiles.

After fertilization, animals have three ways to grow their young. In oviparity, the mother lays fertilized
eggs with yolk inside to feed the baby. The baby grows and hatches outside the body. This is common
in birds, reptiles, and insects. In ovoviviparity, the fertilized eggs stay inside the mother. The baby still
feeds on the yolk but may hatch inside the body or be laid just before hatching. This happens in some
sharks, snakes, and lizards. In viviparity, the baby grows inside the mother, and the mother gives it
food directly from her body. The baby is born alive. This is how most mammals, and some fishes and
reptiles, reproduce.
 In short, sexual reproduction in animals includes many different strategies, but all are based on the same
idea: making egg and sperm cells, joining them, and growing new life from there.

3.​ Reproduction among Different Animal Phyla

Phyla Representative Asexual Sexual Reproduction

Organism Reproduction

Fragmentation is
when an animal breaks Sequential
1. Porifera sea sponges apart and each piece hermaphroditism
grows into a new one. (switches from production
(Sea sponges are very good of male and female gametes)
at this because they have
simple bodies.)

Asexually produced
2. Cnidaria Anemones, hydra, Fission (anemones) medusae produce
jellies Budding (hydra) gametes that fuse and
develop into a polyp

Dioecious (female
produces eggs and males
3. Rotifera rotifers parthenogenesis produce sperms) and
dimorphic (females are 10
x bigger than males)

Most are monoecious

4. Annelida earthworms Fission, budding (hermaphrodites), some
are dioecious

Some can undergo Most are dioecious,

5. Nematoda roundworms parthenogenesis some monoecious
(hermaphrodites)

6. Platyhelminthes tape worms Fission (planaria) Hermaphroditism

Some are dioecious but

others are monoecious
7. Mollusks snails, squids, octopus (Hermaphrodites),
Internal and external
fertilization

Table is continued on the next page…

 Continuation…

8. Echinoderms sea stars, sea urchins fragmentation True hermaphrodites,

some sequential
hermaphrodites

9. Arthropods Insects, crabs, spiders Some undergo Dioecious Terrestrial

parthenogenesis species - internal
fertilization Aquatic
species - internal and
external fertilization

10. Chordates mammals, reptiles, Often dioecious

(Vertebrates) amphibians, birds, Terrestrial species -
fishes internal fertilization
Aquatic species -
internal and external
classification

4.​ Human Male Reproductive System

Know that: The male’s external reproductive organs are the scrotum and penis. The male’s internal
reproductive organs are the gonads, which produce sperm and hormones, accessory glands that secrete
products needed for sperm motility, and ducts that carry sperm and other glandular secretions.

Reproductive Anatomy of the

Human Male (side view). The
figure shows the ejaculatory duct,
seminal vesicles, and the
bulbourethral gland that produce
semen. The figure also shows the
other major structures of the male
reproductive system.

Testes
In male animals, sperm cells are made in the testes. The testes contain tiny coiled tubes called
seminiferous tubules, where sperm develop. Special helper cells called Sertoli cells are also found
there and support the growing sperm. As sperm mature, they move toward the center (lumen) of the
tubules, where they are eventually released.
Between these tubules are Leydig cells, which make reproductive hormones. Sperm either go into the
female’s body or are released outside. In most mammals, the body is too warm for sperm to develop
properly. That’s why the testes are located in the scrotum, a pouch outside the body that keeps them
cooler, allowing normal sperm production.

Cross-Section of a Testicle.

Ducts
After sperm are made in the seminiferous tubules, they move into the epididymis, a coiled tube where
they are stored and continue to mature. When ejaculation happens, the sperm travel through the vas
deferens, a muscular tube that carries them into the body and around the bladder. The vas deferens
joins with the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct. This short duct passes through the
urethra, where sperm mixes with fluids from other glands. This mixture, called semen, is then released
to help with fertilization.

Accessory Glands

Semen is made up of sperm and fluids from three accessory glands.

-​ The seminal vesicles produce a thick, yellowish fluid that feeds and protects the sperm. This
makes up about 60% of semen.
 -​ The prostate gland adds a milky, alkaline fluid that helps sperm survive.
-​ The bulbourethral glands release a clear mucus before ejaculation to clean out any
remaining acidic urine in the urethra.
In total, about 5 mL of semen is released during ejaculation, containing 50–120 million sperm per
mL.

Penis
The penis is made up of three columns of spongy tissue called erectile tissue. During sexual arousal,
this tissue fills with blood, causing an erection. The tip of the penis, called the glans, has thin skin and
many nerve endings, making it very sensitive. It is covered by a fold of skin called the prepuce or
foreskin. Sometimes, this foreskin is removed through circumcision, often for health or religious
reasons.

The Basic Components of a Feedback System

Homeostasis is the body’s way of keeping its internal environment stable. This is done through a
feedback system with three main parts:

- Receptor – detects changes in the environment (like a drop in testosterone levels or outside
temperature).

- Integrating Center – usually the brain or spinal cord. In the case of the male reproductive
system, it’s the hypothalamus in the brain.

- Effector – responds to the change by carrying out a reaction to bring the body back to
balance.

The endocrine system and the nervous system work together to control and coordinate the functions of
an animal's body. The nervous system sends fast signals using chemical messengers at synapses, while
the endocrine system sends slower signals through hormones. Hormones are special chemicals
released by glands. These hormones travel through the blood or body fluids to reach their target
organs, where they cause specific effects.

The hormone system has three main parts. The hypothalamus in the brain acts like the command
center. The pituitary gland is the "middleman" that sends messages from the brain to the rest of the
body. Finally, the peripheral endocrine glands carry out the instructions by making and releasing the
needed hormones.

Hormonal Control of Sperm Production​

Sperm production in males is mainly controlled by hormones, especially in mammals. Inside the testes,
Sertoli cells help support and nourish the developing sperm. These cells are activated by a hormone
 called follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which comes from the anterior pituitary gland. The
release of FSH is triggered by another hormone called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
from the hypothalamus.

FSH helps Sertoli cells release substances that promote spermatogenesis (sperm formation). Sertoli
cells are also stimulated by testosterone, which is made by Leydig cells in the testes. Testosterone is a
steroid hormone that is vital for the development and function of the male reproductive system. Its
production is controlled by luteinizing hormone (LH), another hormone from the anterior
pituitary, which is also regulated by GnRH.

The whole system works through a negative feedback loop. When testosterone levels get too high, it
tells the brain to reduce the release of GnRH, FSH, and LH, slowing down sperm production. Also,
when the sperm count is too high, Sertoli cells release a hormone called inhibin, which lowers FSH
levels and slows down spermatogenesis. But when the sperm count drops below 20 million per mL,
the release of inhibin stops, and sperm production increases again.

SUMMARY: How the Male Gonadal Axis Works

The hypothalamus secretes GnRH which travels down to the anterior pituitary gland where it binds
to its receptors. This causes release of LH and FSH that travel in the bloodstream to the testicles. LH
stimulates Leydig cells in the testicles to produce testosterone, which is required for
spermatogenesis and many other important biological processes. FSH stimulates Sertoli cells to
produce androgen and inhibin, which helps support spermatogenesis and inhibits production of
GnRH, FSH, and LH. High levels of testosterone and inhibin cause negative feedback on the
pituitary and hypothalamus. This results in decreased production of LH and FSH.

5.​ Human Female Reproductive System

Know that: the female reproductive system has three functions:

-​ Produce the female gametes called oocytes
 -​ Produce hormones that should aid in the individual's reproductive cycles
-​ Provide structural and biochemical support to the internally fertilized zygote before it is
mature enough to be delivered or born.
The morphology of the female reproductive system is designed to accommodate all three functions,
which unlike the male counterpart, structures are primarily within the pelvic cavity.

5.a External Genitals: The Vulva

All external structures of the female reproductive system are called the “vulva”.

1.​ Mons pubis - pad of fat over pubic bone

- covered with hair at onset of puberty \

2.​ Labia majora - posterior to mons pubis

​ ​ ​ - folds of hair-covered skin

3.​ Labia minora - thinner pigmented skin

- medial to labia majora
- protects urethra and entrance to female reproductive tract

4.​ Clitoris/glans clitoris - similar to glans penis

- encircled by labia minora
- has numerous nerve endings providing sexual sensation; orgasms

5.​ Bartholin's glands - flanks opening of vagina

- produces secretions, lubricates vagina
 - a.k.a greater vestibular glands

​ 5.b Internal Structures of Female Reproductive System

​ The structures of the inner female reproductive tract comprise the gonads, ducts, and accessory glands.

Internal Reproductive Structures Functions

GONADS

Ovaries -​ Oval, almond shape and size

-​ 2-3 cm in length
-​ Produces the oocytes and female sex
hormones
-​ Supported by the mesovarium that connects
it to the broad ligament
-​ Outer epithelium has tunica albuginea,
beneath this is the cortex composed of a
tissue framework called stroma. Oocytes
develop within the outer layer of the stroma,
each oocyte supported by surrounding cells.
Each oocyte with surrounding supporting
cells is called a follicle

DUCTS AND OTHER PASSAGE STRUCTURES

Vagina -​ Muscular canal about 10 cm long

-​ Entrance to the reproductive tract
-​ Receives the penis during intercourse
-​ Exit from the uterus during menses and
childbirth

Oviducts/ Fallopian tubes -​ Extends from the uterus towards each ovary
-​ Varies in length but the inside diameter of
these structures near the uterus is as thin as a
human hair. At ovulation, the egg is released
into the abdominal cavity near the
funnel-like opening of the oviduct. Cilia in
this structure together with contractions
help collect the egg and convey it to the
-​ Isthmus uterus
-​ Narrow medial end of each oviduct
-​ Infundibul connected to the uterus
 um -​ Extends from the fimbriae to the ampulla
-​ Fimbrae -​ Finger-like projections
-​ Ampulla -​ Where fertilization occurs

Table is continued on the next page…

Continuation…

Uterus/ womb -​ Thick muscular organ that allows

implantation of fertilized egg
-​ During pregnancy, it can grow in size and
accommodate a 4 kg fetus.
-​ Its inner walls called the endometrium is
supplied with many blood vessels

-​ Fundus -​ Portion superior to the openings of the

oviducts
-​ Corpus -​ Middle section of uterus

Cervix -​ Neck of the uterus that opens into the

vagina
-​ Produces mucus secretions that help
facilitate sperm movement through the tract
 Cellular Reproduction

Chromosome Structure and Karyotyping

Meiosis Gametogenesis

Cell Cycle Control and Human Aberrations