General Science
Scope and Competencies
Science
Systematized body of knowledge based from facts and
observations gathered through experimentation.
Science
• Social
• Human behavior and society
• Ex. Politics, Economics
• Natural
• Life
• Biology
• Physical
• Physics
• Chemistry
• Earth Science
Scientific Method
• Systematized/logical way to answer scientific questions and
present the results to the scientific community.
• 1. Observation
• 2. Identifying the problem.
• 3. Gathering preliminary data about the problem.
• 4. Formulate hypothesis.
• Hypothesis – Educated guess based from previously gathered data.
Scientific Method
• 5. Test the hypothesis (through experimentation).
• Variables – Element/s being tested in an experiment.
• Independent Variable – Changed, the variable that will/could bring change to DV.
• Dependent Variable – Changes as a result in change of IV.
• Control – Kept the same throughout the experiment. Used for comparison
• 6. Analyze and Interpret data.
• 7. Drawing/stating conclusion.
• 8. Publishing results to the scientific community.
Fig. 1-3
Order
Response
to the
environment
Evolutionary
adaptation
Regulation
Reproduction
Energy
processing Growth and
development
Levels of Biological Organization
Levels of Biological Organization
Atoms – basic unit of matter. Basic components of elements.
ex. Carbon atom, Oxygen atom, Hydrogen atom
Molecules – the smallest particle in a chemical element or compound that has
the chemical properties of that element or compound.
ex. CO2 , H2O, C6H12O6 (Glucose)
Organelles – made up of various molecules. Components of cells.
ex. Cytoplasm, Mitochondria, Lysosome, Nucleus
Levels of Biological Organization
Cells – basic unit of life. Comprised of various organelles.
ex. Neuron(brain cells), plant cell, somatic cells (body cells: liver
cells, heart cells), gametes (sex cells)
Tissue – comprised of the same types of cells.
ex. Epithelial tissues, heart tissues, skin tissue
Organ – composed of tissues with the same type and function. A
functional unit of an organism that performs specific functions.
ex. Heart, Liver, Skin, Brain
Levels of Biological Organization
• Organ Systems – composed of various organs that performs the a
unified functions.
Ex. Digestive System, Endocrine System, Circulatory System.
• Organism – a living system such as an animal, plant, fungus, protist,
archaeon, or bacterium.
• Population - A group of organisms of one species that interbreed and
live in the same place at the same time.
Levels of Biological Organization
• Communities – also known as biological community, an interacting
group of various species in a common location.
• Ecosystem - A system that includes all living organisms (biotic
factors) in an area as well as its physical environment (abiotic
factors) functioning together as a unit.
• Biosphere - the zone of air, land and water where organisms exist.
Fig. 1-14
Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom Domain
Ursus americanus
(American black bear)
Ursus
Ursidae
Carnivora
Mammalia
Chordata
Animalia
Eukarya
The Three Domains of Life
• The three-domain system is currently used, and
replaces the old five-kingdom system
• Domain Bacteria and domain Archaea comprise the
prokaryotes
• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotic organisms
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
• Basic features of all cells:
• Plasma membrane
• Semifluid substance called cytosol
• Chromosomes (carry genes)
• Ribosomes (make proteins)
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
• No nucleus
• DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
• No membrane-bound organelles
• Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 6-6
Fimbriae
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Bacterial Cell wall
chromosome
Capsule
0.5 µm
(a) A typical rod- Flagella (b) A thin section
shaped through the
bacterium bacterium Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)
• Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having
• DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear
envelope
• Membrane-bound organelles
• Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and
nucleus
• Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than
prokaryotic cells
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 6-9a
Nuclear
envelope
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Nucleolus NUCLEUS
Rough ER Smooth ER
Flagellum Chromatin
Centrosome
Plasma
membrane
CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes
Microvilli
Golgi
Peroxisome apparatus
Mitochondrion
Lysosome
Fig. 6-9b
Nuclear envelope Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
NUCLEUS Nucleolus
Chromatin
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Central vacuole
Golgi
apparatus
Microfilaments
Intermediate
CYTO-
filaments
SKELETON
Microtubules
Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Chloroplast
Plasma
membrane
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
Fig. 6-UN1a
Cell Component Structure Function
Concept 6.3 Nucleus Surrounded by nuclear Houses chromosomes, made of
The eukaryotic cell’s genetic envelope (double membrane) chromatin (DNA, the genetic
instructions are housed in perforated by nuclear pores. material, and proteins); contains
the nucleus and carried out The nuclear envelope is nucleoli, where ribosomal
by the ribosomes continuous with the subunits are made. Pores
endoplasmic reticulum (ER). regulate entry and exit os
materials.
(ER)
Ribosome Two subunits made of ribo- Protein synthesis
somal RNA and proteins; can be
free in cytosol or bound to ER
Fig. 6-UN1b
Cell Component Structure Function
Concept 6.4 Endoplasmic reticulum Extensive network of Smooth ER: synthesis of
The endomembrane system membrane-bound tubules and lipids, metabolism of carbohy-
(Nuclear sacs; membrane separates drates, Ca2+ storage, detoxifica-
regulates protein traffic and envelope)
performs metabolic functions lumen from cytosol; tion of drugs and poisons
in the cell continuous with
the nuclear envelope. Rough ER: Aids in sythesis of
secretory and other proteins
from bound ribosomes; adds
carbohydrates to glycoproteins;
produces new membrane
Golgi apparatus Stacks of flattened Modification of proteins, carbo-
membranous hydrates on proteins, and phos-
sacs; has polarity pholipids; synthesis of many
(cis and trans polysaccharides; sorting of
faces) Golgi products, which are then
released in vesicles.
Breakdown of ingested sub-
Lysosome Membranous sac of hydrolytic stances cell macromolecules, and
enzymes (in animal cells) damaged organelles for recycling
Vacuole Large membrane-bounded Digestion, storage, waste
vesicle in plants disposal, water balance, cell
growth, and protection
Fig. 6-UN1c
Cell Component Structure Function
Concept 6.5 Mitochondrion Bounded by double Cellular respiration
Mitochondria and chloro- membrane;
plasts change energy from inner membrane has
one form to another infoldings (cristae)
Chloroplast Typically two membranes Photosynthesis
around fluid stroma, which
contains membranous thylakoids
stacked into grana (in plants)
Peroxisome Specialized metabolic Contains enzymes that transfer
compartment bounded by a hydrogen to water, producing
single membrane hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a
by-product, which is converted
to water by other enzymes
in the peroxisome
ORGANS SYSTEMS
Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere
From top to Bottom
• Thermosphere
• Mesopause
• Mesosphere
• Stratopause
• Stratosphere
• Tropopause
• Troposphere
Greenhouse Effect
• the trapping of heat by gases in the
atmosphere
Greenhouse gases
> carbon dioxide
> sulfur dioxide
> ozone
> CFCs
> water vapor
Effects of Greenhouse Gas Pollution
• Global warming
> ice in polar caps will begin to melt
> water in the ocean expands
> flooding in lowlands
and coastal areas
> changes in weather
patterns
EARTH AND EARTH
SUBSYSTEMS
Prepared by: Ms. Kimberly C. Losanoy
The analysis of systems provides physical
geographers with an ideal method for studying
relationships that affect Earth’s features and
environments.
System
• Any entity that consists of interrelated parts or components
• The Earth system relies on the interactions among a vast
combination of factors that enable it to support life.
Two Types of Systems
1. Closed system: Energy may
enter and leave, but matter
does not.
2. Open system: System and its
surroundings freely exchange
both matter and energy.
Subsystem
• Functioning units of a major system that demonstrate strong
internal connections
• Examining the Earth system as consisting of a set of
interdependent subsystems is a major concept in
understanding physical geography.
Earth
Systems
Science
Studies the flow of matter and
energy in and out of the Earth’s
open systems, or “spheres”
Earth Major Subsystems:
ATMOSPHERE LITHOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE BIOSPHERE
1. Atmosphere
• “atmo”- means “vapor”
• Gaseous blanket of air that envelops,
shields, and insulates Earth
• Composed of a mixture of gases
• Provides living things with oxygen and
carbon dioxide
• Blocking potentially harmful radiation
Layers of the Atmosphere
Troposphere
• lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in
• contains most of our weather - clouds, rain, snow
• contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and
almost all of the water vapor (which forms clouds and rain)
• lowest part- boundary layer; top part- tropopause
• In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder
as the distance above the earth increases, by about 6.5°C
per kilometer. The actual change of temperature with
height varies from day to day, depending on the weather.
Stratosphere
• extends upwards from the tropopause
to about 50 km
• contains much of the ozone in the
atmosphere
• The increase in temperature with
height occurs because of absorption of
ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun
by this ozone. Temperatures in the
stratosphere are highest over the
summer pole, and lowest over the
winter pole.
• By absorbing dangerous UV radiation,
the ozone in the stratosphere protects
us from skin cancer and other health
damage.
Mesosphere
• layer within the Earth's atmosphere
that extends from about 50
kilometers height (above
the stratosphere) and about 90
kilometers (below
the thermosphere)
• Like tropospheric temperature,
mesospheric temperature
characteristically decreases with
increasing height. The top of the
mesosphere is the coldest area of
the Earth's atmosphere because
temperature may locally decrease to
as low as 100 K (-173°C).
Thermosphere and Ionosphere
• Thermosphere lies above the Those are the bright, beautiful
mesopause, and is a region in bands of light that you
which temperatures again sometimes see near Earth’s
increase with height poles.
• This temperature increase is• They are caused by high-energy
caused by the absorption of particles from the sun
energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray interacting with the atoms in
radiation from the sun. this layer of our atmosphere.
• In the ionosphere, charged •
particles are affected by the
magnetic fields of both Earth
and the sun.
• This is where auroras happen.
Exosphere
• the region above about 500 km
• contains mainly oxygen and hydrogen atoms, but there are
so few of them that they rarely collide - they follow
"ballistic" trajectories under the influence of gravity, and
some of them escape right out into space
Magnetosphere
• The earth behaves like a huge magnet.
• It traps electrons (negative charge) and protons
(positive), concentrating them in two bands about
3,000 and 16,000 km above the globe - the Van Allen
"radiation" belts.
• This outer region surrounding the earth, where
charged particles spiral along the magnetic field lines,
is called the magnetosphere.
2. Lithosphere
• Makes up the solid Earth---
landforms, rocks, soils, and
minerals
• Includes the ocean basins and
the rock layers beneath your
feet, including those you
cannot see
3. Hydrosphere
• “hydro”- means “water”
• Contains all the water in the Earth system
• Includes the water in the oceans, lakes,
rivers, and groundwater, wand water locked
up in ice and snow at the poles and in high
mountains
• About ½ of 1% of all the water in the
hydrosphere is useable fresh water.
• Water is continuously recycled.
*Cryosphere
• Part of the hydrosphere
• Comes from the Greek word “krios” which
means “cold’
• The frozen water part of the Earth system
• Two parts: (1)ice and snow on land; (2) ice
that is found in water
• Plays an important role in the Earth’s climate
*Albedo
• non-dimensional, unitless quantity that
indicates how well a surface reflects solar
energy
• varies between 0 and 1
• commonly refers to the "whiteness" of a
surface, with 0 meaning black and 1
meaning white. A value of 0 means the
surface is a "perfect absorber" that
absorbs all incoming energy
• Absorbed solar energy can be used to
heat the surface or, when sea ice is
present, melt the surface. A value of 1
means the surface is a "perfect reflector"
that reflects all incoming energy.
• Albedo generally applies to visible absorbs the rest, while sea ice
light, although it may involve reflects 50 to 70 percent of the
some of the infrared region of the incoming energy. The sea ice
electromagnetic spectrum. You absorbs less solar energy and
understand the concept of low keeps the surface cooler.
albedo intuitively when you avoid• Snow has an even higher albedo
walking barefoot on blacktop on a than sea ice, and so thick sea ice
hot summer day. Blacktop has a covered with snow reflects as
much lower albedo than concrete much as 90 percent of the
because the black surface incoming solar radiation. This
absorbs more energy and reflects serves to insulate the sea ice,
very little energy. maintaining cold temperatures
• Sea ice has a much higher albedo and delaying ice melt in the
compared to other Earth surfaces, summer. After the snow does
such as the surrounding ocean. A begin to melt, and because
typical ocean albedo is shallow melt ponds have an
approximately 0.06, while bare albedo of approximately 0.4 to
sea ice varies from approximately 0.5, the surface albedo drops to
0.5 to 0.7. This means that the about 0.75. Albedo drops further
ocean reflects only 6 percent of as melt ponds grow and deepen.
the incoming solar radiation and
✓Earth’s average albedo: 30%
✓Forest has low albedo: 5-10%
✓Desert has high albedo: 50%
✓Fresh snow: 80-90%
4. Biosphere
• “bio”- means “life”
• Composed of all living things, from single-
celled protozoans to redwood trees to
people
5. Anthroposphere
• Encompasses the total human presence
throughout the Earth system including our
culture, technology, built environment, and
associated activities
• Complements the term Anthropocene- the
age within which the anthroposphere
developed