GEOGRAPHY

NOTES

FORM 2
Weather and Climate
Weather hazards
Natural weather hazards refer to a phenomenon in the environment that are extreme
causing a loss of life and property. Such extreme weather conditions include drought,
floods and tropical cyclones.

Floods
Floods result when a large than usual volume of water is deposited on ground
surface a result of steady rainfall over a prolonged period of time or high intensity
rainfall in a short period of time.
Effects of floods
 Farmland may be destroyed and crops are susceptible to failure
 Infrastructure like roads, bridges and houses may be destroyed.
 Sewer system may burst a scenario that can increase chances of water borne
diseases like diarrhoea.
 If severe people and animals can die.
Mitigatory measures
 Plan and locate settlements in a way that make them less vulnerable to floods.
 Build strong buildings or bridges reinforced by steel that can withstand the
pressure of flood waters.
 Put in place flood warning systems.
 Create emergency response teams with rescue equipment, medical supplies
and food.

Tropical cyclones
It is mainly caused by high temperatures over tropical oceans above normal which
leads to the formation of extreme low pressure wind systems. Temperature increase
is caused by global warming that is temperatures of a place are sustained at high
levels than normal. The wind systems increase in speed of above 250km/h at origin
and became dangerous bringing storms that are accompanied by heavy rainfall.
Tropical cyclones tend to follow specific paths for example from the Indian ocean
causing significant damages along its path. Trend of tropical cyclones which had
affected Zimbabwe include cyclone Eline in 2000, cyclone Japhet 2003, cyclone
Dineo 2017, cyclone Idai 2019, cyclone Chido 2024.
Cyclones make landfall often bringing heavy rainfall, strong winds and flooding
causing substantial damage to infrastructure, displacement of people and loss of life.
Vulnerable areas are Eastern parts of Zimbabwe bordering Mozambique like
Chimanimani, Nyanga and Chipinge.
Mitigatory measures
 In vulnerable areas construct structures reinforced with steel that can
withstand violent winds and storms.
 Make sure there are no overgrown trees close to buildings.
 Evacuate people to high ground not prone to flooding.
 Put on standby emergency communication systems, food, water and
medicines.

Drought
It is a weather hazard caused by prolonged period of lower than usual rainfall
contributing to shortage of water. During severe period of drought crops may fail and
livestock and wildlife may suffocate and die. Drought is mainly caused by El Nino
and La Nina phenomenon.

Understanding El Nino on global weather and Climate patterns.

What is El Nino
El Nino is a substantial local warming of sea surface waters in the entire equatorial
zone of the Central and Eastern Pacific Ocean which then affects the atmospheric
circulation worldwide. El Nino and La Nina are two opposing climate patterns, which
are warm and cool phase of ocean surface water across the tropical Pacific Ocean
known as the El Nino Southern Oscillation or ENSO.
La Nina is whereby cold ocean surface temperatures along the tropical Pacific
Ocean. Sea surface temperatures drop below normal expected. It is also referred to
as the cold phase of ENSO of surface ocean waters along the tropical west coast of
South America. Usually, strong eastwards moving trade winds and ocean currents
bringing cold water to the surface a process known as upwelling causing a drastic
drop in sea surface temperatures.
El Nina and La Nina are recurrent weather phenomenon that takes place
approximately every two to seven years usually lasting 12 to 18 months. The
phenomenon changes the likelihood of a particular climate and weather patterns
around the globe.
El Niño and La Nino is actually a sea component because it contributes to abnormal
sea surface temperatures. This contribute to unstable global atmospheric state
which is referred to as Southern Oscillation. The combination of the two-give rise to
the term El Nino- Southern Oscillation -ENSO
Impacts of El Niño and La Niña
  Drought offset affecting global cereal agricultural systems
 Cause tropical cyclones due to change in global weather and climate patterns.
From agricultural and food security point of view with respect to cereal crops, it is
vital to know:
 The potential impact of El Nino.
 Potential impact of drought linked to the intensity of El Niño
 Onset and duration of the phenomenon.
 Are some countries or regions more vulnerable to the impact than others.
 What has been the frequency and impact of drought in crop lands over the
last 30 years

Effects of Drought
 Crops may fail with little to no harvest
 Water sources may dwindle
 Livestock and wildlife may suffocate and die in large numbers during severe
drought.
Mitigatory measures
 Develop sustainable water harvesting techniques by constructing dams with
large capacity.
 Develop water saving irrigation methods.
 Develop drought resistant crop varieties.
 Improve management of land to avoid overgrazing and deforestation.
 Understanding the potential impact and severity of drought.

How human activities contribute to weather changes

Industrialization
  It refers to an increase in industry particularly secondary ones in an area or
region. When industry balloons, it contributes to significant weather changes.
Effects
 Changes the composition of air due to excessive pollution from vehicle
exhaust and factories. Large volume of particles known as condensation
nuclei in the atmosphere speed up formation of rainfall
 Increase temperatures of the locality due to heat released by factories and
that absorbed by tarred roads, buildings, and concrete surfaces. This scenario
contributes to the development of ' Urban Heat Island'.
 Large space is cleared to open industrial space. Deforestation means few
carbon gases are absorbed by tress leading to increase in temperatures due
to accumulation of greenhouse gases. This will contribute to global warming,
hence an overall climate change.

Urbanization
It is the expansion of towns and cities due to rapid increase in the number of people
living in urban areas. If population in a town and cities balloons, this scenario add
pressure on services delivery like water and electricity.

Effects
 Since more water will be required, more dams should be constructed which
cause significant deforestation.
 High demand of electricity means more power stations should be constructed
hence excessive pollution if power generation means are not clean sources.
 Volume of automobiles will increase which will add more greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere.
 Rate of pollution will increase a scenario that will degrade water sources
when the city/town is the catchment area.
Climate in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe has a tropical continental climate because it lies close to the equator.
Rainfall ranges between 250mm/year in drier regions to 700mm/year in wet regions.
Temperature and rainfall conditions are greatly affected by relief and altitude. Places
in high altitude above sea level like Nyanga in the Eastern Highlands (1878 above sea
level) are much wetter and cooler. It is the opposite to the low-lying areas like
Beitbridge (439m above sea level) are hotter and dry.

Climatic Zones.
Since temperature and rainfall conditions differ across Zimbabwe, they are mainly
influenced by altitude and relief. Zimbabwe is therefore divided into three climatic
zones.
a) Hot region. It includes the lowveld and part of the middle veld. Maximum
temperatures are usually higher than 20 degrees Celsius throughout the year.
b) Warm region. It includes the rest of the middle veld and most of the highveld.
Maximum temperatures are normally between 15 degrees to 20 degrees.
c) Cool region. This is including the highest part of the country, the Eastern
Highlands. Minimum temperatures average is 15degrees or cooler.
Zimbabwe’s climate zones and farming activities.
Climate influences economic activities such as agriculture and forestry.
Region 1: specialized and diversified farming
Region 2: Intensified farming that is small piece of land with more inputs, high
output and high yield
Region 3: semi-intensified farming
Region 4: Semi extensive farming
Region 5: extensive farming that is large piece of land and few inputs

Climate Variability
It refers to how climatic conditions mostly temperature and rainfall fluctuate above
and below the long-term climate normally calculated over 30 years. Climate
variability is different from climate change. Climate change is the consistent change
for example decrease of average rainfall or increase of temperatures over time.
Climate variability in Zimbabwe
Climate variability seems to be linked to El Nino and La Nina phenomenon. During El
Nino Zimbabwe and other countries in southern Africa experience low rainfall. La
Nina event in the 2016-2017 farming season resulted in heavy rainfall and floods.

Effects of Climate variability

 It complicates large scale engineering work like large scale project including
bridge and dam construction which take years to complete.
 It leads to uncertainties regarding the performance and management of Agric
economy.
 Excessive dwindling of dams contributes to over siltation hence low water
capacity.

Solutions to the effects of climate variability

 Research into the countries weather and climate conditions to better prepare
for hazards like floods and cyclones.
 Improve water harvesting systems through building large dams and reservoirs
that can sustain domestic and commercial water need during El Nino
phenomena.
 Development of seed and animal varieties which are better adapted to
variable climate conditions
 Construction of durable infrastructure such as bridges, roads and dam walls
which can withstand hazards posed by floods.
Landforms and Landscape processes
The earth environment is made up of four spheres composed of different materials:
 Atmosphere: this is the sphere of gases responsible for the weather.
 Biosphere: the sphere of living organisms
 Hydrosphere: sphere of water in its gaseous, liquid and solid forms
 Lithosphere: solid sphere of minerals and rocks
Internal structure of the earth
The earth’s lithosphere extends deep down and is divided into different layers
The crust/lithosphere
The crust is the uppermost layer composed of the continental crust and oceanic
crust (ocean floors). It is the soil and solid rocks part of the earth. Depth ranges
between 5km to 70km.
The mantle/mesosphere
Is the next layer down the earth made of upper and lower mantle with silicate rocks
is the major material. Material is in molten state, known as lava. Depth ranges
between 35km and 2800km into the lithosphere.
The core
It is believed to be made up of two layers, the outer molten layer and the inner solid
core both composed of varying amounts of iron and nickel. Its depth ranges from
2790km at the outer core to 6370km at the centre of the earth
Three main layers of the earth

Diagram space
Rocks
Rocks are a combination of two or more minerals. Main types of rocks include the
following:
 Igneous rocks. These are formed from molten rock materials from the mantle
that solidify underground of on the earth’s surface. Examples are granite and
basalt
 Sedimentary rocks. There are formed under water from mud and silt
deposited by rivers. They are characterised by layers. Examples include
limestone and shale.
 Metamorphic rocks. They are formed from pre-existing igneous and
sedimentary rocks when they are subjected to intense pressure and heat.
Examples include marble and slate.

Weathering
It is the breakdown of a rock by mechanical (physical) or chemical change of rock
when exposed to different temperature and moisture. Third classification of
weathering is biological.
Mechanical weathering is defined as the disintegration of mineral and rock by
physical force like temperature. Examples include Freeze thaw action, insolation, salt
crystal and pressure release.
Freese thaw weathering
Also known as ice wedging. It weathers rocks when water collects in pores, joints,
fractures between rocks. When temperature fluctuates above and below the freezing
point of water- it freezes and thaws (melts). On freezing the volume of water
increases exerting force sufficient enough to break the rock.

Diagram space

Salt crystal weathering

Salts dissolved in water may penetrate rock cracks. When the rock is heated, water
evaporates leaving behind the solid salt crystal. Salt crystal accumulates causing
stress which can lead to physical breakdown of the rock.
Insolation weathering/thermal expansion
The process breakdown the rock due to expansion of the rock during extremely hot
day and rapid cooling at night causing contraction. Since rocks are composed of
various minerals with varying expansion and contraction magnitudes. Repeated
expansion and contraction will cause the outer layer to rapture and peel off especial
for a rock with uniform mineral composition. Peeling of outer layer is onion or
exfoliation weathering.
Pressure release
When rock formed underground is subjected to release of load above, it exposes it to
pressure and temperature conditions different compared to those during its
formation. Rock may expand and top layers peel off. Other physical and chemical
processes will act on the exposed rock further disintegrating it.

Chemical weathering
Carbonation.
It is when carbon dioxide dissolve in water forming a weak acid-carbonic acid which
reacts with rock minerals breaking.
Hydrolysis
It is the decomposition of rock minerals as they react with water ions dissolving
minerals into clay. Igneous rocks such as granite, the component feldspar and mica
are turned into clay, while for basalt, the iron and magnesium components are also
turned into clay.
Oxidation
It specifically affects iron bearing rocks when they come into contact with rain water.
When iron bearing rocks are oxidised a red or yellow colour is formed on the rock
surface.
Hydration
It takes place when the rock absorb water, the mineral expands and rock cracks. In
other sense hydration weathering is a physical process because the is no chemical
reaction.

Biological weathering
It refers to weathering by biological means for example root action and humic acid
from decomposing dead plant
Tree leaves and other dead plants material produce humic acid when decomposing
material come into contact with water. Humic acid can break down some mineral
components in rock.
Root action
 Diagram space

When seeds are admitted into rock cracks, a tree can grow in cracks, roots and the
tree itself will create some stress sufficient to break down the rock.

Ecosystem
Definition of terms
Biome.
It is a specific geographic location that supports the ecosystem with
distinctive flora and fauna that have adapted to the environmental
conditions of that area.
Biodiversity
Refers to the variety of flora and fauna within the biome. Biodiversity is
divided into genetic, habitat, and species biodiversity.
 genetic biodiversity: it refers to the variation of genes within the
same species or varieties within a species. For example, varieties
of apples
 Habitat diversity: habitat is the site or place where an organism or
population of organisms occurs for example a micro-ecosystem
like a pool or tree.
 Species diversity: it refers to the variety of species within a habitat.
For example, birds, reptiles, animals.
Importance of biodiversity
Every living component has an important function to balance nature. For
example
 Insects, birds are pollinators and seed dispersal agents.
  Parasites and predators are natural population controls
 Earthworms and bacteria recycle and decompose organic
materials which help to improve soil fertility.
 Legume family such as beans and peas fix atmospheric nitrogen
to produce the soil nutrients
Tropical ecosystems
Tropical systems are located from latitude 0-30 degrees north and south
of the equator. They are classified into terrestrial biome which are land
ecosystems and aquatic biomes like freshwater and marine
Tropical/Equatorial rain forest
These are rainforest biomes located 10⁰ north and south of the equator.
They receive rain throughout the year of more than 1000mm/year and
temperatures average in the upper twenties, 27⁰C. They normally receive
afternoon convectional rainfall almost on daily basis.
Tropical rainforest has diverse species of flora characterized by:
 tall towering trees with canopy at 25-35m.
 trees grow fast and tall because they compete for sunlight.
 Trees have buttress roots that anchor them in the soil.
 Plants like vines and lians use other plants for support.
 Epiphyte plants that grow on other plants.
 Plants have large drip tip leaves to quickly shed rain water.
 A lot of fungi and bacteria which grow quickly in the hot, humid
environment.
Tropical Continental/Savanna
Located 5⁰ to 15⁰ north and south of the equator. They receive rainfall
averaging 250mm/year in drier areas and 700mm/year in wetter areas.
Climate is characterized by
 Seasons of summer and winter with high temperatures, high
rainfall and cool conditions, low to no rainfall respectively.
 Trees are deciduous which shed leaves during dry season to
reduce evapotranspiration.
  Grass has underground stems and rhizomes capable of surviving
dry winter period.
 Umbrella-shaped trees which are also scattered
 Trees have long tap roots to draw water and nutrients during dry
season.
 The ground is open grassland supporting variety of grazing wildlife
like zebras, giraffe, elephant and buffalo.
Tropical Desert
Located 15⁰ to 30⁰ north and south of the equator. The Sahara Desert
covers most of the north Africa and the Namib Desert lies along the
Atlantic west coast Namibia. Tropical deserts are characterized by less
than 250mm/year. High aaverage temperatures of around 30⁰C
throughout the year and large temperature range.

Plants
 Short grasses, shrubs and bushes in response to limited water
sources.
 Trees have tinny leaves with spine and thorns to reduce
evapotranspiration.
 Long tap roots to access water from deep underground.
 Succulent plants that store water and nutrients in stems and
leaves.
 Ephemeral plants which have short life cycle that is they germinate,
flower and die.
 Seeds can remain dormant for several years and they germinate
when it rains.
Animals
 Waterproof skin reduce evaporation
 They have body fat deposits to store energy.
 Animals are light coloured to reflect heat.
Sustainable Management of Ecosystems
Sustainability means that all the needs of all the components are met
within the system. Energy and matter is recycled from one member to
the other in a food pyramid and food web in a continuous cycle.
Environmental threats to local ecosystem
Deforestation, overcultivation and overgrazing has proved to be a big
threat for sustainability of savanna biome contributing to land
degradation.
Conservation measures
Conservation refers to the preservation of endangered habitats and plant
and animal species. It can be achieved through responsible
management of the environment, reclamation of degraded areas and
creation of habitats like game parks.
Strategies for conserving local forests
Zimbabwe has passed several laws to ensure the conservation of the
ecosystem. These include:
 The Environmental Management Act (EMA act) passed in 2002 to
ensure sustainable use of all components of ecosystem.
 Statutory instrument 116 of 2012. Forest controls prohibiting
unlawful cutting down of timber for firewood, as well as other
forest.
 The Environmental Impact Assessment and Ecosystems
Protection Regulations Statutory instrument 7 of 2007 to give
procedures for undertaking Environmental Impact Assessment-
EIAs, preventing veld fires and protecting wetlands and streams.
 Traditional Leaders Act of 1998 controls land-use and extraction of
communal resources.
Strategies for conserving local forests
a) Constructing fireguards across grazing land or yard to precent
veldfires
b) Afforestation to replace trees cut down and use of alternative
sources of energy to replace and conserve wood fuel.
c) Paddocking to avoid overgrazing which cause land degradation.
 d) Practicing land terracing and ploughing across on steep slopes.
e) Prosecute those in charge with an unlawful act in destroying forest
and causing land degradation.
Ecosystem and Entrepreneurship
The person who set up a business is an entrepreneur. Local people can
identify business opportunity by using available natural resources to
generate income which is channeled to other conservative measures to
perpetuate the natural beauty of the ecosystem. Examples are:

Ecotourism
Is a tourism business that rely on natural environment and ecosystems
to attract visitors to an area. The profit generated can be used for
conservation and protection to ensure sustainability of the ecosystem.
For example, the Victoria Falls offer tourists service and exposure to a
variety of natural beauty.
Game Parks
Tourist experience wilderness where they drive through and discover
fascinating wildlife and birds in their natural habitat. At Matopo nature
park and many others owned by individuals are examples
entrepreneurship business where natural ecosystem was harnessed to
become a source of income.
Population and natural resources

Total human population for a planet or country is the difference between the number
of the people who are born and those who die. If less people die than are born during
a specific period of time, it represents net increase in population.
Birth rate (%) = (number of births/total population) x 100
Death rate (%) = (number of death/ total population) x 100
Emigration and immigration impact population growth of a country. Emigration
refers people who leave a country whilst Immigration are people who come to a
country
The effects of the growth of the human population on resources.
The relationship between the population in an area and the available natural
resources is very important. In any given area the available resources can support a
maximum number of people without experiencing environmental problems.
Population growth in relation to available resources result to different scenarios.
Underpopulation
Refers to a situation where the human population is too low to fully exploit and
benefit from the available resources.
Optimum population
It is when the size of population allows the complete use of the natural resources of
the area to support the best possible standard of living at the level of technology
available. The population is in balance with the available resources.
Overpopulation
It is when there are too many people in relation to the available resources. This may
be due to an increase in population beyond the carrying capacity of the available
resources or due to a decrease of the natural resources. In each case it results to
potential damage to the environment and a drop in standard of living.

Effects of population growth on land.

Overcultivation of land
Increasing human population lead to shortage of land. Population density tend to
increase. Population density is expressed as the number of people per km². When
population density increase contributes to pressure on the land in order to produce
enough food for increased population.
Overgrazing
Population increase means more livestock kept by people hence depletion of grazing
land.
Desertification
It refers to area changing to arid or dry due to humans clearing large portion of land
for settlement and agriculture. It affects the hydrological cycle leading to decrease in
rainfall. The land become dry and plants will adapt to dry conditions.
Soil erosion
Whenever population grows to an extent of that there is overpopulation it leads to
overcultivation, deforestation and overgrazing which make the land vulnerable to soil
erosion.
Land pollution
When population density has increased tremendously it result to excessive pollution
of land by dumping of garbage, industrial effluents and other toxic substances.

Factors influencing exploitation of natural resources.

Demand
Demand of natural resources is a major determinant influencing their exploitation.
Demand of lithium, a metal which is used make lithium batteries, has increased
tenfold in More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) as the transition from
normal fuel engines to electric cars is taking center stage.
Technology
Technology used to extract raw materials influence extraction of raw materials.
MEDCs are the biggest players in resource extraction because they have all the
sophisticated technology and machinery to efficiently exploit resources.
Accessibility
When a natural resource is accessible by transport and communication
infrastructure if become easy exploit and transport the produce. Construction of
roads and or railway where necessary should be possible.
Conducive investment environment
A country with friendly investment policies will attract capital investment through
foreign direct investment (FDIs) injected by Transnational companies-TNCs. These
corporations have big financial muscle to exploit resources in which the parent
country is incapable to do.
Political instability
Natural resources are the main cause of conflicts and wars. When a conflict develop
it deter natural resources exploitation because TNCs cannot be motivated to invest
in conflict region. Countries with vast endowment of natural resources like
Mozambique and DRC have suffered big setbacks in comprehensive FDIs due to
conflicts mainly emanating from fighting for controlling resources.