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a word or phrase which refers to a noun, generally precedes a noun and
indicates amount - how many or how much
quantifier E.g. I have a lot of friends.
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is a feature of connected speech which refers to the boundary between
sounds where the speaker may pause slightly to show where the boundary
is
juncture E.g.: that stuff [ðætstʌf] and that's tough [ðætstʌf]
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an adverbial and one of the five elements of clause structure (SVOCA)
which is not necessary and adds some extra meaning to the phrase.
adjunct E.g.: I kept a copy of the letter in my desk.
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using tentative language to avoid committing yourself 100% to a belief in
the validity of a statement. It is often seen in academic genres, where writers
will cite the work of other researchers.
hedging E.g.: Danesbury (2012) suggests that modern coursebooks are overloaded
with language items, leading to learners becoming confused and assimilating
less than they might otherwise do.
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when a sentence in discourse mirrors the structure of a previous
sentence/sentences, which helps to give cohesion to the text.
parallelism E.g.: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.
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an adverbial which conveys the speaker's attitude to the proposition (idea
disjunct of the sentence).
E.g.: Unfortunately, we were too late.
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an adverbial which conveys the logical relationship between the idea in the
current clause and a previous one.
conjunct E.g. : We missed the bus. As a result, we were half an hour late.
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words or phrases that go before another word or phrase and in some way
influence its meaning.
pre-modifiers E.g.: She's got a new car. (car is … by two elements - the indefinite article
a acting as a determiner, and the adjective new.
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a test where the tasks do not reflect real language use, and learners'
abilities cannot be fully demonstrated.
indirect test E.g.: a pronunciation test where learners do not speak but match words with
their vowel sounds
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words which have opposite meanings or incompatible with each other.
E.g.: adverbs such as quickly-slowly, adjectives such as regular-irregular,
antonyms good-bad
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a type of inductive language focus activity, where learners should work out
rules about language for themselves by answering questions based on a
set of given examples.
guided discovery E.g.: 1) Students read the text for overall understanding (skimming).
2) They then focus on the language by reviewing TL examples and answering
CCQs
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a feature of connected speech when a sound changes to another sound
because of a neighbouring sound.
assimilation E.g.: in ten boys [n] followed by [b] changes to [m] as in [temboiz].
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word class (aka part of speech) a grammatical category of words.
E.g.: to work, to sleep (… … - verbs)
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classes-and-phrase-classes
a test which compares test takers to each other rather than against
external criteria. The grading system is predetermined based on the test
norm-referenced cohort's performance.
test E.g.: in a class of 20 learners: Top 25% (5 learners) get Grade A / Next 25%
get Grade B / Next 25% get Grade C / Bottom 25% fail
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a procedure in which students create a text together by planning, drafting,
revising, editing and then publishing or sharing it with others. The main
focus is on the process not on the product itself.
process writing E.g.: phases: 1) pre-writing (planning and brainstorming), 2) drafting
(producing the initial version), 3) revising (making improvements and
changes), 4) editing (correcting grammar, punctuation, and style), and 5)
publishing (sharing the final version).
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verbs which are used to support another verb in a sentence and have a
grammatical function such as showing tense, aspect, person, voice and
auxiliary verbs mood.
E.g.: I will come home earlier.
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(aka hesitation devices) words or sounds used in spoken discourse by
speakers to avoid frequent, long or silent pauses, to hold the floor, to gain
fillers thinking time, etc.
E.g. Er… I have nothing to say.
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a verb which is not followed by an object.
intransitive E.g.: He arrived yesterday.
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the omission in speaking or writing of individual words, or parts of a
sentence, which do not convey the meaning. (For example, it can be used to
avoid repetition)
ellipsis E.g. Got a pen? - “Have you” is ellipted
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The state of linguistic competence of a learner at a specific moment in

time, which will show some but not full correspondence to the competence
of a native speaker.
interlanguage E.g. : A B1 learner will have assimilated some of the structures and lexis of the
language, but will still make errors when using other forms, producing a mix
of accurate/inaccurate speech. As s/he progresses in the language the
balance will change.
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a word which has the same pronunciation as another word but a different
spelling and meaning.
homophone E.g. see [siː] and sea [siː]
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a consonant sound where the flow of air is partially blocked and released
slowly.
fricative E.g. [f] in fun [fʌn]
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the theory that viewed learning as a matter of habit formation, where habits
are formed when the learner's responses to external stimuli are positively
reinforced.
Behaviourism E.g. pattern drills with positive feedback from the teacher to correct
answers.
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the verbal signals given by the listener to indicate interest, attention,
surprise etc.
backchannelling E.g.: A: And then she came in. B: Really?
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a verb which functions as a noun and is created by adding -ing to its stem
gerund E.g.: Parking is not permitted
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the study of language use in context and how meaning is interpreted in
Pragmatics specific situations.
E.g.: “Is that the phone?” can be interpreted as a request to answer the phone
or to ask what thing is on the table.
corpus a database of real language samples (either spoken or written texts) stored
on a computer and which can be used for investigating language use and
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E.g.: British National Corpus

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an approach which involves using English as a tool to teach another
Content and subject to not native English speakers.
Language E.g.: Teaching geography in English to learners whose L1 is Spanish.
Integrated
Learning [Link]
q=Content+and+Language+Integrated+Learning
a consonant sound in which the air flow is initially stopped, but then is
released slowly with friction.
affricate E.g. [tʃ] in church [ʧɜːʧ]
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the morphological process of adding a bound morpheme to the stem of a
word, either at the end or at the beginning. This modifies the word's
affixation meaning and/or changes its word class.
E.g. useful (use + a morpheme ful)
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a type of formative assessment which is designed to show what language
skills or knowledge a learner already has, and given before beginning of a
language course.
diagnostic test E.g.: A teacher developes a test for a new group of presumed B1 students,
covering the necessary language skills for that level, to identify their
strengths and weaknesses.
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the application of a known rule in an inappropriate context.
overgeneralisation E.g. the learner who knows that -ed is the English past tense marker and says
I goed to Rome yesterday.
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a term for the forms of the verb which express the speaker's attitude to
what is said. There are 3 types: indicative, imperative and subjunctive.
mood E.g.: Open the door (imperative …)
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lexical set a group of words that relate to the same topic or situation
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a place of articulation of a consonant sound produced by the lower lip
touching, or almost touching the upper teeth.
labiodental E.g. [v] in van [væn]
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a term used in testing when a test looks like a test to the candidates.
face validity E.g. the test they are taking includes tasks they would expect to meet in such
a test, and the format is familiar.
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a clause element that follows a copular verb and gives information about
the subject.
subject E.g. He's a doctor.
complement
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a clause element that relates to the object and usually follows it.
object E.g.: She called him a fool.
complement [Link]
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a weak vowel sound represented in phonemic scripts as /Ə/
schwa E.g.: at the end of doctor [ˈdɒktə]
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a type of referencing, where an item refers to something that occurs before
it in a text.
anaphoric E.g.: I don't want to go to any noisy parties, I never enjoy them. (them refers
reference to noisy parties mentioned before)
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(in testing) a term to indicate if the scores on a test give an accurate result
E.g.: if the learner took the test twice would s/he get the same result (test-
reliability retest …)
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a type of motivation of a learner who has a practical objective in learning a

instrumental language, such as getting a job or passing an exam.
E.g.: Ann learns English to pass IELTS and get her Student Visa.
a type of motivation when language is learned for personal growth and
integrative cultural enrichment through contact with speakers of the other language
motivation (to integrate to another culture).
E.g.: a person is in love with French culture and wants to spend more time
talking with people from this country in their language.
a verb which links the subject and the complement
copular verb E.g. He became a teacher
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a word in one language which is similar in both meaning and form to a word
in another language.
cognate E.g. l’histoire in French and history in English.
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a sentence split into two parts, each with its own verb, in order to
emphasise a particular element.
cleft sentence E.g.: It was yesterday that he left (rather than He left yesterday)
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the process in L2 learning in which incorrect language becomes a
permanent part of a person’s speech.
fossilisation E.g.: a learner who, despite repeated correction, does not use the third
person 's'
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two words which have the same spelling and pronunciation, but different,
unrelated meanings.
homographs E.g.: I can swim / A can of beans
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substitution a process in discourse in which a noun, phrase or clause is replaced by a
word or words to help with cohesion in a text.
E.g.: "Would you like an ice cream?" "Yes, I'd love one."
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an approach from structural linguistics which involves comparing features

of one language against another.
Contrastive E.g.: that both English and German include the form Have/Haben + past
Analysis participle, but the use of the form differs in the two languages.
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a phase which often occurs at intermediate level and refers to a period
during which the learner seems to "stop learning" for a while.
E.g.: It is typified by such features as a gap between receptive and productive
The Plateau Stage competence and a progression in the development of fluency at the expense
of complexity.
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psychological factors involving the feelings and attitudes of learners,
which may impact on success in learning either negatively or positively.
E.g.: a learner made to "feel silly" by the teacher because of an error s/he has
affective variables made may be unwilling to continue to participate fully in the lesson or take
risks with the language.
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a consonant sound made by partially blocking the airflow but allowing air
lateral to pass down the sides of the tongue.
E.g.: approximant [l] in large [lɑːʤ]
a test quality concerned with whether the test assesses only what has been
covered in the preceding course.
E.g.: A2 students have been studying present continuous for ongoing present
content validity event in their course but in the test there are some tasks with the same tense
but to express irritation - the test lacks … …
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the process of decoding letters, sounds, words and grammatical
structures when reading or listening to a text.
bottom-up E.g.: 1) sound [p] not [b]; 2) word - pig [pig]; 3) phrase my pig [maɪpɪɡ]; 4)
process sentence - my pig is small [maɪpɪɡɪzsmɔːl]
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collocation two or more words which are frequently used together.

E.g. make a speech, do homework
a sentence which takes the form of a statement, as opposed to a question
or imperative. It can be either positive or negative.
declarative E.g.: Max plays the guitar. Rick doesn't play an instrument.
sentence
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words that are specific examples of a more general word.
hyponyms E.g.: fruit (=superordinate) - banana, grape and pineapple (…)
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a verb in a verb phrase (usually first auxiliary) which is used for grammatical
operations such as inversion, negation etc.
operator E.g.: be in the form of “am“ in I’m going to the supermarket.
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a part of a sentence that consists of a pronoun or a noun and any other
words placed before or after which modify it.
noun phrase E.g. an old photograph (article + adjective + noun)
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a consonant sound made by a sudden release of air from between the
tongue and the alveolar ridge.
alveolar plosive E.g.: [t] in top [top]
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selecting techniques for classroom use from a range of different methods
/ approaches.
eclecticism E.g.: drilling a dialogue (Audiolingualism) + a guided discovery activity which
develops autonomy (Humanism)
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information gap a classroom activity in which learners have different information and need
activity to exchange the information in order to complete the activity
E.g.: jigsaw reading / describing different pictures to each other
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determiner a grammatical unit which precedes a noun and modifies it

E.g.: quantifiers (this), articles (a, the)
a test taken to assess candidate’s language ability regardless of any
proficiency test course of study.
E.g.: IELTS, CAE
an activity where learners read different parts of texts and than compare
jigsaw reading the information they have read.
E.g.: a story divided into parts - ss exhchange the information to understand
the whole picture
de-lexicalised a verb with little or no dictionary meaning on its own (without nouns or
verb adjectives)
E.g.: get in get married
using background knowledge to understand text/audio
E.g.: when reading a text about New York, the reader creates a mental
top-down process picture/brainstorms/thinks of related ideas before reading the text (yellow
cabs, The Statue of Liberty, crowds of people)
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a sound /w/ that is inserted between a word which ends in a vowel sound
intrusive /w/ and begins with one.
E.g.: go out [ɡəʊwaʊt]
when the /r/ sound is pronounced at the end of a word that ends in a vowel
linking /r/ sound when followed by another word starting with a vowel. The first word
ends with the letter r which is not normally pronunced in non-rhotic accents.
E.g.: "far away" [fɑːrəˈweɪ]
a sound /r/ that occurs between a word ending in a vowel sound and
intrusive /r/ another word starting with a vowel.
E.g.: "the idea of" [ðiːaɪˈdɪərʌv]
a sound /j/ that is inserted between a word ending in a vowel sound and
intrusive /j/ another word starting with a vowel.
E.g.: "I see it" [aɪsiːjɪt]
a verb which can be used to describe a condition, state, possession,
stative verb emotion, sense.
E.g.: I know it’s true
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(functional …) one whose language content is organised according to

meanings which the learner needs to express, such as functions
(apologising) and notions (place or time)
notional syllabus E.g.: To make a request you need to use a functional exponent, such as
Can/Could you + infinitive (Can you open the window?)
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the positive or negative impact of a test on classroom teaching and
backwash learning.
E.g.: A test may encourage teaching to the test, influencing what is taught
and how.
the attitudinal meaning of a word, which may be culturally determined, such
as whether it carries a positive or negative meaning.
connotation E.g.: thin - denotation; skinny - positive …
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adjacency pair aE.g.: sequence of two related utterances by two different speakers
A: 'Fancy a coffee?' B: 'I'd love one!'( i.e. offer - acceptance)
order of the order in which grammar / language items are thought to be acquired
acquisition E.g.: irregular past before regular past
structural syllabus aE.g.:
syllabus which is based around a series of grammatical structures
verb 'to be' - present simple - present continuous
word family a group of words that share the same root.
E.g.: care, careful, careless, uncaring, carer
an activity used to measure reading comprehension in which every N-
cloze word is removed from a reading passage in order for a student to fill in the
gaps.
E.g.: I went to the [], when I saw a []… (every 5th words is missing).
inaccuracy in speech or writing due to lack of knowledge of the language
error item needed.
E.g.: I’m wanting tea - student uses Present Continuous instead of Present
Simple because doesn't know about state verbs yet.
a sentence (often the first one) in a text which introduces and/or
topic sentence summarises the main idea of the text.
E.g.: It is important to be ready before buying a house… - The topic is "buying
a house" and the controlling idea is “it is important to be ready."
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(aka unbound …) a form of a word which can stand alone or to which

free morpheme affixes can be added.
E.g.: (un)interest(ing)
a teaching strategy in which the needs of a mixed ability class are
considered by giving the learners tasks according to their individual
differentiation abilities.
E.g.: a class is given a gapfill text and the weaker students are also given a list
of answers to choose from
a sound made by allowing the airflow to exit without obstruction, but used
approximant in the same position as a consonant
E.g.: /j/ in yet
words which have a heightening or lowering effect on the item they
intensifiers modify.
E.g.: "a bit" in "I felt a bit silly"
a word or expression which indicates the semantic relationships between
items in the discourse.
E.g.: The train was an hour late leaving, so that we missed our connection in
connective Birmingham. As a result, we didn't get to the hotel until 11 pm.
(consequence)
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a text type which is factual in content and aims to provide information on a
expository text specific topic.
E.g.: textbooks, glossaries, and articles in professional journals.
the effect of L1, which may be positive or negative, on the learner's use of
the target language.
language transfer
E.g.: A Russian learner who has never heard the word "revolution" before may
still understand it because of its similarity to the Russian "revolutcia".
opportunities for learning related to 'emergent language' that occur
during lessons, often arising unpredictably from student-teacher
interactions.
affordances E.g.: During a T/Class follow up, a learner uses, accurately, a lexical chunk that
the T. believes other learners may not know or use spontaneously. S/he brings
this to the attention of the class, checking comprehension and doing some
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formative a test which is used to assess how well students have got the material and
assessment improve the quality of future learning.
E.g.: a progress test taken after a unit or module.
dispreferred reply in an adjacency pair which can cause negative reaction on the part of
second the listener.
E.g.: A refusal of a request
interrogative which can be answered by saying either "yes" or "no", which
closed question are formed by placing the operator in front of the subject of the clause, and
which usually have rising intonation.
E.g.: Are you going to the supermarket? (with rising intonation on "su"?
a grammatical process common in reported speech where present tense
verbs in direct speech change to past verbs in reported speech, and past
backshift verbs in direct speech become past perfect in reported speech.
E.g.: Where are you? is reported as She asked me where I was.
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a phrase containing a pair of words of the same class linked by a
binomials conjunction.
E.g.: pros and cons
set of forms of a verb in which the subject is typically the person or thing
active voice performing the action and which can take a direct object
E.g.: She loved him as opposed to the passive form he was loved.
an addition to a word base to modify its meaning or create a new part of
affix speech.
E.g.: uninteresting (un-, -ing are …)
a version in which a particular phoneme (= speech sound) can be
allophone pronounced.
E.g.: an aspirated p in pin and unaspirated p in spin.
a grammatical category that refers to how an event or state is perceived
with reference to time.
aspect E.g.: Rita has broken the rule (Perfect … - refers to the result of the action)
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bilabial a consonant sound formed by closure or near closure of the lips.
E.g: [m] in mug [mʌɡ]
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in morphology a word element that cannot stand alone as a word, including
bound morpheme both prefixes and suffixes.
E.g.: uninteresting
collective noun a noun that describes a group of things or people as a unit.
E.g.: flock - a group of birds
compound words two or more words linked together to produce a word with a new meaning.
E.g.: foot + ball = football (noun)
(aka … sequence) a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel.
consonant cluster E.g.: [spl] in split [split]
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coordinating a connective which is used to link two words, phrases or clauses that are
conjunction grammatically equal.
E.g.: Alex lives in Spain and he’s a chef
discourse marker a word or phrase which manages the flow and structure of discourse.
E.g.: For example, hens are birds. (for example - … … to examplify)
is a feature of connected speech which refers to the omission of
elision sounds/syllables as a similar sound occurs immediately afterwards
E.g.: I walked to work [aɪwɔ:k(t)təwɜ:rk] - final [t] in walked is omitted
exophoric a reference within a text to something outside of it (extratextual).
reference E.g.: Look over there!
(aka … friend) a word that has a similar form to one in a person's L1, but a
false cognate different meaning.
E.g.: English magazine and French magasin ‘shop’).
gradable an adjective which can be used in the comparative or superlative, or that
adjective can be qualified by words such as 'very' or 'a bit'.
E.g.: I’m very tired.
a fixed lexical chunk with a specific meaning that often cannot be worked
idiom out from analysis of the literal meaning of the words used.
E.g.: once in a blue moon
illocutionary force (aka … function, … act) speaker’s intention in delivering an utterance
(request, command, wish, etc).
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a feature of connected speech, when an extra sound is placed between

intrusion two words said together to facilitate pronunciation.
E.g.: [w] in go out [ɡəʊwaʊt]
two words that vary by only a single meaning sound, that may confuse
minimal pair English learners
E.g.: bin [bin] and pin [pin]
a modal verb (used along with a main verb) which not only adds functional
or grammatical meaning to the clause but also expresses speaker’s
modal auxiliary attitude (such as possibility, obligation, prohibition, etc.).
verb E.g.: You must leave. - obligation.
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monophthong a vowel sound in which the tongue stays in one position.
E.g.: [ʌ] in cup [kʌp]
morpheme the smallest morphological unit of language that has its own meaning.
E.g. two morphemes in (prefix) and come (stem), forming income.
a verb form or clause type which does not reflect tense, person or
non-finite number.
E.g.: You need to do your homework.
finite a verb form or clause type which reflects tense, person or number.
E.g.: She goes to work.
nuclear stress (aka tonic…) a syllable with the greatest prominence in a sentence.
E.g.: “I will give you a permit.” … stress is on the … syllable per of permit.
a consonant sound that is produced by stopping the airflow, followed by a
plosive sudden release of air.
E.g.: [b] in big [big]
the form of a verb, ending in -ing, which is used in forming continuous
tenses.
present participle E.g. in I'm thinking
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question tag a short clause at the end of a statement which changes it into a question.
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use of different language varieties based on context, such as formality.

register E.g.: opting for 'Sit down!' versus 'Would you like to take a seat?' depending
on a situation.
a verb that behaves like a modal auxiliary verb but also acts like a full verb
semi-modal verb (requires an auxiliary verb to make questions and negative forms)
E.g.: Do you have to go?
(aka hypernym) an umbrella term that includes specific words (hyponyms)
superordinate within it.
E.g.: fruit is … for hyponyms: banana, apple, pear etc.
syntax a set of rules that determines the arrangement of words in a sentence.
E.g.: Jillian hit the ball - Subject (Jullian) + Verb (hits) + Object (the ball)
a grammatical category that expresses time reference through different
tense verb forms.
E.g.: I like reading - Present Simple …
transactional a communicative interaction where the primary purpose is to convey
exchange information or facilitate a particular transaction.
E.g.: buying vegetables at a market: A: How much B: 2 two kilos A: 10 pounds
transitive a verb which requires a direct object.
E.g.: He gave it to me.
genre a piece of writing with a recognisable structure, layout and language.
E.g: newspaper reports, recipes, horoscopes, travel guides, memos, etc.
a writing process where students mimic a model text presented and
product writing analyzed at an early stage.
E.g.: 1) model texts are read 2) controlled practice 3) organisation of ideas 4)
the result - product
reading a text quickly to find some information.
scanning E.g.: reading a text to look for proper names and related information to them.
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turn the time during which each participant in spoken discourse holds the
floor.
E.g.: A : What's the time? - (turn 1) B : 9 o'clock - (turn 2)
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an invisible psychological filter that can either facilitate or hinder
affective filter language production in L2. One of 5 Krashen’s hypotheses.
E.g.: when students come to a new group their … … is high, so they
experience stress which can negatively influence the learning process.
a teaching approach emphasizing spoken language and direct connection
direct method to meaning, without tolerance to errors and any translation.
E.g.: teaching concepts and vocabulary through realia
set of terms used for the description or analysis of another language.
metalanguage E.g.: verbs, nouns, adjectives - are examples of … when we talk about parts of
speech.
a hypothesis, when a language is learned, there should be a period in
silent period which the learner is not expected to actively produce any language.
E.g.: listening comprehension and vocabulary input
a classroom technique where the teacher models a sentence, then alters
substitution drill key words for students to repeat, practicing new language structures.
E.g.: Teacher’s example: It's hot today. Students: It's sunny today. It's warm
today.
a teaching method that utilises positive suggestions and relaxation to
suggestopedia facilitate language acquisition and retention.
E.g.: use of calm music can help students feel more relaxed.
a teaching method that uses physical movement to facilitate language
Total Physical learning, where students respond with actions to commands given in the
Response TL.
E.g.: Teacher says “Turn around” and students do the action.
the theory based on the notion that every language speaker has an innate
knowledge of grammatical principles common to all languages and
parameters that vary between them.
universal E.g.: Students who learn English as a target language also are familiar with the
grammar concept of questions, since they have them in their language.
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achievement test a summative assessment given at the end of a course to check if
students know the material which has been taught, and are ready to go on
to the next level.
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 E.g.: many coursebooks include an "end of course" test, which can be used
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for this purpose

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direct test an assessment employing tasks which replicate real-life activities.
E.g. role-playing a job interview
a test which evaluation is based on personal judgment rather than fixed
subjectively criteria.
marked test E.g.: A speaking test where the teacher have to assess students skills based
on his/her personal criteria.
a degree to which an assessment accurately measures the concept it
validity intends to measure. Types: face, content, construct, predictive.
E.g.: test covers Present Simple that has been previously learnt by students
(content …)

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