CHAPTER FIVE

GEOMETRIC DESIGN

5.1 OVERVIEW

Geometric design is an essential component in the design development of highway. It is

the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is designed to meet the needs of
the users. The principal geometric features are the road cross-section components, horizontal and
vertical alignment, sight distance, intersection treatment, control of access, etc. Taking as a
whole, the quality and appearance of a road is determined by the quality of the geometric
alignment design and its relationship to the surrounding environment.

The physical location of a highway for design and construction is developed and dimensioned
with respect to a calculated centreline that is expressed in terms of bearings, distance, curvature,
transition stations and offsets. This numerically derived centreline information is collectively
referred to as the geometric design. Geometric aspect of the route is designed to provide a safe,
accident free and comfortable road for drivers.

Hence, the location of the road should compromise the facts that it should be short, economical,
easy and safe for construction, maintenance and operation. It is also necessary to mention that
taking the volume and composition of traffic in to account should be made in selecting the design
standard for the road.

5.2 THE DESIGN EXCEPTION PROCESS

Despite the range of flexibility that exists with respect to virtually all the major road design
features, there are situations in which the application of even the minimum criteria would result
in unacceptably high costs or major impact on the adjacent environment. For such instances
when it is appropriate, the design exception process allows for the use of criteria lower than
those specified as minimum acceptable values in the ERA.

5.3 ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN

The most important part of highway design is geometric design to give safe and comfortable
road way to the driver and the passenger. Geometric design has elements listed below and will be
discussed in throughout the project and some of them discussed so far in unit three.
 Horizontal alignment

Minimum radius of curve

Minimum stopping sight distance

Minimum passing sight distance

Vertical alignment

Maximum gradient

Length of maximum gradient

Minimum stopping sight distance on vertical curves

Length of vertical curves

Cross section

Width of carriage way

Width of shoulders

Right of way

Cross fall, camber and super elevation

Elements of design are influenced by a variety of design controls engineering criteria like:

Function and classification of the road

Required design speed

Topography of the surrounding land

Projected traffic volume and composition

Traffic safety considerations

Environmental considerations

Capital cost of construction and

Road way users etc.

Most of the above criteria are described in chapter three. But some new concepts are discussed
below.
5.3.1 TOPOGRAPHY

Topography of the area affects geometric design of a [Link] geometric design elements
strongly depends on the transverse terrain through which the roads passes. Generally terrain
properties are categorized in to four different classes: Flat, rolling, mountainous, escarpment. All
which are discussed in detail in unit three.

5.3.2 DESIGN SPEED

It is the most important factor controlling the geometric design element of a highway. Design
speed is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of highway
when conditions are so favourable that the design features govern.

The choice of design speed is governed primarily by topography, traffic volume, function and
class of highway, capital cost, aesthetic considerations etc. Different speed standards are
assigned for different classes of the road.

Traditionally the first step in choosing geometric standard is to fix the ‘design speed’ for the
road. However when choosing geometric standards for particular situations, it is more important
to consider the purpose for which the road is being provided.

The design speed is used as an index which links the road function, traffic flow and terrain to the
design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that the driver is presented with a
reasonably consistent speed environment

The design speeds have been determined in accordance with the following guidance:

. Drivers on long distance journeys need to travel at higher speeds than local traffic.

. On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high speeds are undesirable.

.drivers usually adjusts their speeds to physical limitations and prevailing traffic conditions.
Where difficult location is obvious to the driver, he is more apt to accept a lower speed of
operation.

. Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs) may justify a higher
design speed for a road carrying large volumes of traffic than a less heavily trafficked road in
similar topography.

v. vertical and horizontal curve considerations.

In this project as per economic and curves consideration design speed used. Using higher speed
needs long sight distance and not good for sharp turning corridors. Design speed and station
range tabulated below.
From To Terrain type design speed

0+000.000 0+080 Mountainous 60

0+080.00 0+400 Rolling 70

0+400.000 0+582.681 Mountainous 60

0+582.681 0+880 Rolling 70

0+880.000 0+960 Flat 85

0+960.000 1+200 Rolling 70

1+200.000 1+280 Flat 85

1+280.000 1+310.324 Rolling 70

1+310.240 1+440 Mountainous 60

1+440.000 1+520 Rolling 70

1+520.000 1+600 Flat 85

1+600.000 1+680 Mountainous 60

1+680.000 1+920 Rolling 70

1+920.000 2+080 Mountainous 60

2+080.000 2+240 Rolling 70

2+240.000 2+320 Flat 85

2+320.000 2+343.269 Rolling 70

2+343.269 2+560 Mountainous 60

2+560.000 2+640 Flat 85

2+640.000 2+880.444 Rolling 70

2+880.444 3+040.000 flat 85

3+040.000 3+280 rolling 70

3+280.000 3+360 Mountainous 60

3+360.000 3+564.484 rolling 70

3+564.484 3+600 flat 85

3+600.000 3+680.078 rolling 70

3+680.078 3+840 Mountainous 60

3+840 3+875.383 rolling 70

3+875.383 4+000 mountainous 60

4+000 4+124.583 rolling 70

4+124.583 4+260.314 escarpment 50

4+260.314 4+400 mountainous 60

4+400 4+480 rolling 70

4+480 4+507.858 mountainous 60

4+507.858 4+882.805 escarpment 50

4+882.805 5+120 Mountainous 60

5+120 5+200 escarpment 50

5+200 5+280 mountainous 60

5+280 5+440 Escarpment 50

5+440 5+479.022 mountainous 60

5+479.022 5+525.494 flat 85

5+525.494 5+600 rolling 70

5+600 5+644.284 mountainous 60

5+644.284 5+840 escarpment 50

5+840 5+920 mountainous 60

5+920 6+207.539 escarpment 50

6+207.539 6+235.247 mountainous 60

6+235.247 6+240 escarpment 50

6+240 6+320 rolling 70

6+320 6+342.458 mountainous 60

6+342.458 6+367.980 escarpment 50

6+367.980 6+400 rolling 70

6+400 6+485.377 mountainous 60

6+485.377 6+640 escarpment 50

6+640 6+720 rolling 70

6+720 6+800 escarpment 50

6+800 6+880 mountainous 60

6+680 6+980.802 escarpment 50

6+980.802 7+040 flat 85

7+040 7+280 rolling 70

 7+280 7+520 mountainous 60

7+520 7+600 rolling 70

7+600 7+680 Mountainous 60

7+680 7+991.135 escarpment 50

7+991.135 8+092.689 mountainous 60

8+092.689 8+160 rolling 70

8+160 8+228.987 flat 85

Table 5.1:- the design speeds on different chainages

5.2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

Landscape, air & noise pollution and aesthetic conditions also affect road geometries. For
instance for aesthetic consideration extra calculation in road section have to be assessed.

5.2.4 TRAFFIC COMPOSITION AND VOLUME

Vehicular characteristics related to cars, buses trucks, motor cycles all have different speed and
acceleration characteristics. The same traffic behaviour is also affected by physical, mental and
psychological characteristics of drivers and pedestrians.

A highway is designed for not the traffic flow but slighter lower values, so a reasonable value of
traffic volume is decided by multiplying the peak flow with a factor.

5.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

In horizontal alignment, the design, should be consistence to the topography, provide good
drainage system and minimize earth work. And the alignment selected for particular project
should run without sudden changes from easy to sharp curves. A curve is designated either in
terms of radius or the degree of the curve. Here for the purpose of simplicity curves are
designated in terms of radius

Along the best corridor chosen, an open transverse is established and because vehicles cannot
make sharp turns, circular curves are normally used to join intersecting tangents. Thus, the
design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight section, the circular
curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the super elevation section. All these elements are
functions of speed and radius.

These two basic factors are modulated by various conditions,

E.g. traffic, economics and physical site conditions the limiting values are determined in various
international standards based on the above considerations and ERA design guidelines is found to
be appropriate and is applied in the course of the design works.

The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight section, the transition
curve (spiral) and the super elevation section.

5.3.1 TANGENT SECTIONS

From an aesthetic point of view, tangent sections may often be beneficial in flat country but are
less so in rolling or mountainous terrain. From a safety standpoint, they provide better visibility
and more passing opportunities. However, long tangent sections increase the danger from
headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. In hot climate areas, such as on the
Awash- Djibouti Road, long tangents have been shown to increase driver fatigue and hence
cause accidents. This issue needs to be addressed in the course of the horizontal design. The
maximum length of a tangent section should not exceed 4.0 kilometers. But in this particular
project there is no tangent section longer than about 2.5km

5.3.2 CIRCULAR CURVE

When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially outward by centrifugal force. The
centrifugal force is counterbalanced by super elevation of the roadway and/or the side friction
developed between the tires and the road surface.

The recommended desirable minimum curve radii for super elevated curves can be seen within
the recommended design standards. The absolute minimum values can be calculated taking into
account maximum super elevation (emax) and the maximum side friction (fmax). The formula to
calculate this is as follows:

Where:

VD = Design Speed (km/h)

 e = Maximum super elevation (in %)

f = Side friction coefficient

Table 5.2:- Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves with 8% Super elevation.

From ERA Design Manual, the above table or the above formula one can get minimum
radius requirement but the provided radius should be equal or greater than Rmin value. If the
proposed radius using reference of terrain can’t be greater than Rmin if it becomes grater, the
design speed should be reduced. In this project all minimum radius selected according to design
speed selected on the base of terrain classification which is stated in unit three. The design speed
and PI stated below may be corrected once again in vertical alignment.

Sample calculations for the determination of minimum curve radiuses of the first second fourth
and sixth curves are as shown below.

Curve 1:-
Location of PI=0+244.731

Terrain type=Rolling

Design speed=70km/h

f =0.14

e =0.08
 2
Rmin = 70 /127(0.08+0.14) = 175.375m

R pro = 180m, since the provided radius is greater than the minimum radius the design is ok!

Curve 2:-

Location of PI =0+638.089

Terrain type=Rolling

Design speed=70km/h

f =0.14

e =0.08

2
Rmin = 70 /127(0.08+0.14) = 175.375

R pro = 200m since the provided radius is greater than the minimum radius the design is ok!

Curve 4:-
Location of PI=1+278.928

Terrain type=Flat

Design speed=85km/h

f =0.14

e =0.08

2
Rmin = 80 /127(0.08+0.14) = 258.5899

R pro = 400 since the provided radius is greater than the minimum radius the design is ok!
Curve 6:-
Location of PI= 1+631.644

Terrain type= Mountainous

Design speed=60

f =0.15

e =0.08

2
Rmin = 60 /127(0.08+0.15) = 123.24m

R pro = 70m, since the minimum radius is greater than the provided radius we have to reduce
the design speed to 45km/h so that the minimum radius is below the provided radius.

Therefore Rmin =69.325

All other PI and radius conditions are tabulated below

From To Terrain desig minimu radius remar new new

n m radius provide k Vd minimum
speed d radius
0+000.00 0+080 Mountainou 60 123.245
0 s
0+080.00 0+400 Rolling 70 175.375 180 ok
0+400.00 0+582.68 Mountainou 60 123.245
0 1 s
0+582.68 0+880 Rolling 70 175.375 200 ok
1
0+880.00 0+960 Flat 85 258.5898
0
0+960.00 1+200 Rolling 70 175.375 120 new Vd 55 108.26
0
1+200.00 1+280 Flat 85 258.5898 400 ok
0
1+280.00 1+310.32 Rolling 70 175.375
0 4
1+310.24 1+440 Mountainou 60 123.245
0 s
1+440.00 1+520 Rolling 70 175.375 150 new Vd 60 128.84
0
1+520.00 1+600 Flat 85 258.5898
0
1+600.00 1+680 Mountainou 60 123.245 70 new Vd 45 69.325
0 s
1+680.00 1+920 Rolling 70 175.375
0
1+920.00 2+080 Mountainou 60 123.245
0 s
2+080.00 2+240 Rolling 70 175.375 550 ok
0
2+240.00 2+320 Flat 85 258.5898
0
2+320.00 2+343.26 Rolling 70 175.375
0 9
2+343.26 2+560 Mountainou 60 123.245
9 s
2+560.00 2+640 Flat 85 258.5898
0
2+640.00 2+880.44 Rolling 70 175.375
0 4
2+880.44 3+040.00 flat 85 258.5898 300 ok
4 0
3+040.00 3+280 rolling 70 175.375 300 ok
0
3+280.00 3+360 Mountainou 60 123.245 200 ok
0 s
3+360.00 3+564.48 rolling 70 175.375
0 4
3+564.48 3+600 flat 85 258.5898
4
3+600.00 3+680.07 rolling 70 175.375 90 new Vd 50 89.477
0 8
3+680.07 3+840 Mountainou 60 123.245 160 ok
8 s
3+840 3+875.38 rolling 70 175.375
3
3+875.38 4+000 mountainou 60 123.245 90 new Vd 50 85.5
3 s
4+000 4+124.58 rolling 70 175.375 60 new Vd 40 57.2
3
4+124.58 4+260.31 escarpment 50 82.02 50 new Vd 37 44.9
3 4
82.02 90 ok
4+260.31 4+400 mountainou 60 123.245 80 new Vd 45 69.32
4 s
4+400 4+480 rolling 70 175.375
4+480 4+507.85 mountainou 60 123.245
8 s
4+507.85 4+882.80 escarpment 50 82.02 30 new Vd 30 29.527
8 5
82.02 120 ok
82.02 40 new Vd 34 37.9
82.02 50 new Vd 35 40.19
4+882.80 5+120 Mountainou 60 123.245 30 new Vd 27 24.9
5 s
123.245 30 new Vd 27 24.9
5+120 5+200 escarpment 50 82.02 30 new Vd 30 29.527

5+200 5+280 mountainou 60 123.245

s
5+280 5+440 Escarpment 50 82.02 80 new Vd 45 66.43

5+440 5+479.02 mountainou 60 123.245 90 new Vd 50 85.58

2 s
5+479.02 5+525.49 flat 85 258.5898
2 4
5+525.49 5+600 rolling 70 175.375 200 ok
4
5+600 5+644.28 mountainou 60 123.245
4 s
5+644.28 5+840 escarpment 50 82.02 250 ok
4
5+840 5+920 mountainou 60 123.245 90 new Vd 50 85.58
s
5+920 6+207.53 escarpment 50 82.02 90 ok
9
82.02 30 new Vd 30 29.527
6+207.53 6+235.24 mountainou 60 123.245
9 7 s
6+235.24 6+240 escarpment 50 82.02
7
 6+240 6+320 rolling 70 175.375 30 new Vd 27 26.09
175.375 50 new Vd 35 43.84
6+320 6+342.45 mountainou 60 123.245
8 s
6+342.45 6+367.98 escarpment 50 82.02
8 0
6+367.98 6+400 rolling 70 175.375
0
6+400 6+485.37 mountainou 60 123.245 30 new Vd 29 28.79
7 s
6+485.37 6+640 escarpment 50 82.02 30 New 30 29.57
7 Vd
6+640 6+720 rolling 70 175.375 200 ok
6+720 6+800 escarpment 50 82.02 100 ok

6+800 6+880 mountainou 60 123.245

s
6+680 6+980.80 escarpment 50 82.02
2
6+980.80 7+040 flat 85 258.5898
2
7+040 7+280 rolling 70 175.375 40 new Vd 40 57.26

70 175.375 60 new Vd 30 32.21

70 175.375 40 new Vd 40 57.26
7+280 7+520 mountainou 60 123.245
s
7+520 7+600 rolling 70 175.375 300 ok
7+600 7+680 Mountainou 60 123.245
s
7+680 7+991.13 escarpment 50 82.02 200 ok
5
82.02 200 ok
7+991.13 8+092.68 mountainou 60 123.245 200 ok
5 9 s
8+092.68 8+160 rolling 70 175.375
9
8+160 8+228.98 flat 85 258.5898
7
Table 5.3:- calculations of minimum radiuses

5.3.3 Horizontal circular curve parameter

 Fig 5.1 Horizontal Circular Curve Parameters

D (Degree of curve)

By Arc Definition (station interval measured along arc)

5729 . 58
100 2 ΠR D=
= From which R
D 360

R (Radius of Curve) By Arc Definition

5729. 58
R=
D

T (Tangent Distance)
 Δ
T =R tan
2

E (External Distance)

[ Δ
E=R| Sec −1 |
2 ]
L (Curve Length)
Δ
L=100
D

M (Middle Ordinate)
Δ
M=R|1−cos |
2

C (Chord from P.C. to P.T.)

Δ
C=2 R sin
2

Point-of-Curvature (P.C.) Station P.C. = P.I. – T

Point-of-Tangency (P.T.) Station P.T. = P.C. + L

Calculation for point of curvature, point of tangency, external distance and middle ordinates of
the first 12 curves are given in the next pages.

Curve 1:-
PI=244.731 ,
∆=48.1042 ,

R pro =180m
Δ
T =R tan
2
Δ
L=100
D
P.C. = P.I. – T = 244.731-180(tan 48.1042/2) = 164.394

P.T. = P.C. + L = 164.394+100*48.1042*180/5729.58=315.45

[ Δ
E=R| Sec −1 |
2 ]
= 180*[sec (48.1042/2) - 1] =17.114

Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 180*[1 - cos (48.104/2)] = 15.63
2

Curve 2:-

PI= 639.704
∆= 80.0019

R pro = 200
Δ
T =R tan
2
Δ
L=100
D
P.C. = P.I. – T = 639.704 – 200*tan (80.0019/2) = 471.82

P.T. = P.C. + L = 471.82 + 100*80.0019*200/5729.58 = 751.0253

[ Δ
]
E=R| Sec −1 | = 200*[sec (80.0019/2) – 1] = 61.08
2

Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 200[1 – cos(80.0019/2)] = 46.79
2

Curve 3:-
PI= 1007.884
∆= 22.1221

R pro = 120
Δ
T =R tan
2
Δ
L=100
D
P.C. = P.I. – T = 1007.884 – 120*tan (22.1221/2) = 984.44

P.T. = P.C. + L = 984.44 + 100*22.1221*120/5729.58 = 1030.739

[ Δ
]
E=R| Sec −1 | = 120[sec (22.1221/2) – 1] = 2.27
2

Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 120[ 1 – cos(22.1221/2)] = 2.23
2

Curve 4:-

PI= 1280.542
∆= 30.4513

R pro = 400
Δ
T =R tan
2

Δ
L=100
D
 P.C. = P.I. – T = 1280.542 – 400*tan (30.4513/2) = 1171.67

P.T. = P.C. + L = 1171.67 + 100*30.4513*400/5729.58 = 1384.177

[Δ
]
E=R| Sec −1 | = 400[sec (30.4513/2) – 1] = 14.55
2

Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 400[1 – cos(30.4513/2)] = 14.04
2

Curve 5:-

PI= 1450.159
∆= 334.2321

R pro = 150

Δ
T =R tan
2
Δ
L=100
D
P.C. = P.I. – T = 1450.159 – 150*tan (334.2321/2) =1484.469

P.T. = P.C. + L = 1484.469 + 100*334.2321*150/5729.58 = 2359.135

[Δ
]
E=R| Sec −1 | = 150*[sec (334.2321/2 – 1)] = 303.874
2

Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 150[1 – cos(334.2321/2)] = 296.223
2

Curve 6:-

PI= 1633.258
∆= 87.034

R pro = 70
P.C. = P.I. – T = 1633.258 – 70*tan (87.034/2) = 1566.8

P.T. = P.C. + L = 1566.8 + 100*87.034*70/5729.58 = 1673.08

[ Δ
]
E=R| Sec −1 | = 70[sec (87.034/2) – 1] = 26.53
2

Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 70[1 – cos(87.034/2)] = 19.238
2

Curve 7:-

PI= 2178.015
∆= 51.2613

R pro = 550
Δ
T =R tan
2
Δ
L=100
D

P.C. = P.I. – T = 2178.015 – tan (51.2613/2) = 1914.137

P.T. = P.C. + L = 1914.137 + 100*51.2613*550/5729.58 = 2406.012

[ Δ
]
E=R| Sec −1 | = 550[sec (51.2613/2) – 1] = 60.025
2

Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 550[1 – cos(51.2613/2)] = 54.12
2

Curve 8:-
 PI= 2912.346
∆= 39.1750

R pro = 300
Δ
T =R tan
2
Δ
L=100
D

P.C. = P.I. – T = 2912.346 – 300*tan (39.1750/2) = 2805.59

P.T. = P.C. + L = 2805.59 + 100*39.1750*300/5729.58 = 3010.632

Δ
[ ]
E=R| Sec −1 | = 300[sec (39.1750/2) – 1] = 18.427
2

Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 300[1 – cos(39.1750/2)] = 17.36
2

Curve 9:-

PI= 3149.8
∆= 56.5927

R pro = 300
Δ
T =R tan
2
Δ
L=100
D
P.C. = P.I. – T = 3149.8 – 300*tan (56.5927/2) = 2988.29

P.T. = P.C. + L = 2988.291 + 100*56.5927*300/5729.58 = 3284.491

[ Δ
E=R| Sec −1 |
2 ] = 300*[sec (56.5927/2 – 1] = 40.71

Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 300[1 – cos(56.5927/2)] = 35.84
2
Curve 10:-
PI= 3357.796
∆= 51.3251

R pro = 200
Δ
T =R tan
2
Δ
L=100
D

P.C. = P.I. – T = 3357.796 – 200*tan (51.325/2) = 3261.703

P.T. = P.C. + L = 3261.703 + 100*51.3251*200/5729.58 = 3482.287

[Δ
]
E=R| Sec −1 | = 200[sec (51.325/2) – 1] = 21.88
2

Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 200[1 – cos(51.325/2)] = 19.727
2

Curve 11:-

PI= 3629.191
∆= 122.5839

R pro = 90
Δ
T =R tan
2

Δ
L=100
D
P.C. = P.I. – T = 3629.191 – 90*tan (122.5839/2) = 3464.85

P.T. = P.C. + L = 3464.85 + 100*122.5839*90/5729.58 = 3657.334

[Δ
]
E=R| Sec −1 | = 90[sec (122.5839/2) – 1] = 97.364
2
Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 90[1 – cos(122.5839/2) = 46.768
2
Curve 12:-

PI= 3720.587
∆= 94.334

R pro = 160
Δ
T =R tan
2
Δ
L=100
D

P.C. = P.I. – T = 3720.587 – 160*tan (94.334/2) = 3548.002

P.T. = P.C. + L = 3548.002 + 100*94.334*160/5729.58 = 3811.326

[ Δ
]
E=R| Sec −1 | = 160[sec (94.334/2) – 1] = 75.34125
2

Δ
M=R|1−cos | = 160[1 – cos (94.334/2)] = 51.22
2

The geometric design elements associated with the horizontal alignment are designed using
software called Eagle Point 2007, applying the Ethiopian Road Design Manual 2002. And the
output data obtained after several observing and cross checking with the design manual are
tabulated in the next pages.
No PI Rpro ∆ in degree (∆/2) in radians PC L PT /E/ M
1 244.731 180 48.08484587 0.419788337 164.39363 151.062944 315.4566 17.11441 15.62846
5
2 639.704 200 79.96971223 0.698148281 471.87842 279.146856 751.0253 61.08509 46.79324
3
3 1007.88 120 22.11319945 0.193051741 984.42564 46.3137600 1030.739 2.271397 2.229202
6
4 1280.54 400 30.4390483 0.265737723 1171.6721 212.504569 1384.177 14.55115 14.04039
6
5 1450.16 150 334.0976259 2.916725305 1484.4694 874.665226 2359.135 303.874 296.2236
5
6 1633.26 70 86.99898295 0.759514931 1566.791 106.289270 1673.08 26.52908 19.23809
9
7 2178.02 550 51.24067565 0.447339232 1914.1373 491.874999 2406.012 60.02577 54.11931
7
8 2912.35 300 39.15923843 0.341866367 2805.5945 205.037219 3010.632 18.42719 17.36082
6
9 3149.8 300 56.56993063 0.493864474 2988.2913 296.199358 3284.491 40.71258 35.84773
2
10 3357.8 300 51.30444999 0.447895992 3213.6572 268.629375 3482.287 32.83029 29.59192
9
11 3629.19 90 122.5345799 1.069746332 3464.8575 192.476799 3657.334 97.36466 46.76879
2
12 3720.59 160 94.29644573 0.823222939 3548.001 263.325258 3811.326 75.34214 51.2222
13 3904.36 90 130.0986354 1.135781737 3710.6855 204.358385 3915.044 123.5618 52.07187
5
14 4064.69 60 21.13189442 0.184484793 4053.4936 22.1292601 4075.623 1.035722 1.018147
8
15 4152.51 50 79.37815034 0.692983852 4110.9928 69.2704791 4180.263 14.9905 11.53284
1
16 4228.59 90 55.20957817 0.481988381 4181.5093 86.7229715 4268.232 11.57154 10.25325
9
17 4319.97 80 128.4330058 1.121240527 4154.1704 179.326241 4333.497 104.0919 45.23476
 4
18 4534.93 30 340.363204 2.971424797 4540.0809 178.213693 4718.295 60.43966 59.56669
1
19 4572.06 120 25.23984098 0.220347818 4545.1858 52.8621804 4598.048 2.973312 2.901422
3
20 4787.06 40 289.0457592 2.523415358 4815.5014 201.791935 5017.293 89.0836 72.59745
3
21 4850.56 50 254.0526439 2.217919908 4916.721 221.702676 5138.424 132.9333 80.1447
2
22 4992.19 30 43.33435794 0.378315823 4980.2612 22.6898086 5002.951 2.282779 2.12136
5
23 5105.39 30 180.4081858 1.574992098 12255.406 94.4614714 12349.87 7180.077 30.12587
2
24 5136.27 30 87.07775125 0.76020259 5107.7449 45.5937876 5153.339 11.39664 8.259107
3
25 5329.62 80 157.0668807 1.371218799 4934.1135 219.306658 5153.42 323.5202 64.13958
7
26 5449.87 90 118.2880891 1.032673794 5299.088 185.806429 5484.894 85.60127 43.87277
4
27 5586.7 200 152.293402 1.329545573 4773.8322 531.604068 5305.436 637.1096 152.2165
7
28 5735.66 250 136.5250487 1.191885346 5107.7518 595.70269 5703.454 425.842 157.5228
29 5866.46 90 176.9700696 1.544976799 2381.4999 277.983835 2659.484 3396.121 87.6765
9
30 5996.74 90 218.1831814 1.904773806 6256.1226 342.721217 6598.844 364.5549 119.5023
3
31 6192.31 30 151.1810497 1.319834561 6075.2881 79.1581842 6154.446 90.80421 22.54993
2
32 6258.54 30 75.42174279 0.658443786 6235.3296 39.4907180 6274.82 7.929292 6.271638
6
33 6319.38 50 17.09351987 0.149229142 6311.8647 14.9169047 6326.782 0.561946 0.555701
9
34 6486.54 30 168.3924221 1.470092574 6189.6402 88.1700345 6277.81 268.4076 26.98399
2
35 6608.24 30 16.11771263 0.14071019 6603.9866 8.43921158 6612.426 0.29946 0.296501
 36 6643.27 200 55.02235353 0.48035388 6539.0559 192.064177 6731.12 25.522 22.63371
6
37 6741.13 100 18.52264465 0.161705628 6724.82 32.3281019 6757.148 1.321834 1.304589
6
38 7049.14 40 138.0652288 1.205331363 6944.6102 96.3876785 7040.998 71.92456 25.70466
5
39 7166.05 60 62.25904077 0.543531308 7129.7986 65.1974917 7194.996 10.10265 8.646734
2
40 7248.23 40 157.0869726 1.371394205 7050.2921 109.667356 7159.959 161.9352 32.07667
1
41 7548.53 300 123.364146 1.076988576 6991.2078 645.932927 7637.141 332.9352 157.8053
42 7748.05 200 67.42516141 0.588632362 7614.5297 235.358128 7849.888 40.47109 33.65984
9
43 7926.91 200 85.40032641 0.745558405 7742.2421 298.103269 8040.345 72.21654 53.05816
44 8043.03 200 114.4460355 0.999132056 7732.1443 399.491884 8131.636 169.6636 91.79351
3

Table 5.4:- horizontal curve elements

5.3.4 Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves
Curves are more frequent in rugged terrain. Tangent sections are shortened, and a stage
may be reached where successive curves can no longer be dealt with in isolation. Three
cases of successive curves are:

Reverse Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the opposite direction

 Broken-Back Curve: a curve followed by another curve in the same direction

 Compound curve: curves in the same direction, but without any intervening tangent
section

Figure 5.2: Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves

The occurrence of abrupt reverse curves (having a short tangent between two curves in
opposite directions) should be avoided. Such geometrics make it difficult for the driver to
 remain within his lane. It is also difficult to superelevate both curves adequately, and this
may result in erratic operation.

The "broken-back" arrangement of curves (having a short tangent between two curves in
the same direction) should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of
way conditions dictate otherwise. Drivers do not generally anticipate successive curves in
the same direction. This also creates problems with superelevation and drainage. In this
project there are many broken back curves which can’t remove from design in particular
from 20+000 up to EOP.

The use of compound curves affords flexibility in fitting the road to the terrain and other
controls. Caution should however be exercised in the use of compound curves, because the
driver does not expect to be confronted by a change in radius once he has entered a curve.
Their use should also be avoided where curves are sharp.

Compound curves with large differences in curvature introduce the same problems as are
found at the transition from a tangent to a small-radius curve. Where the use of compound
curves cannot be avoided, the radius of the flatter circular arc should not be more than 50
percent greater than the radius of the sharper arc; i.e. R 1 should not exceed 1.5 R2. A
compound arc on this basis is suitable as a form of transition from either a flat curve or a
tangent to a sharper curve, although a spiral transition curve is preferred.

In this project design processes tried to remove both spiral transition curve and compound
curves but due to topography nature of the road it is untouchable to design with out
transition and compound curve but only one compound curve exists which is between
curve 52 and 53.

5.3.5 Sight distance

Sight distance is the distance along the road surface which a driver has visibility of objects
stationary or moving at specified height above the carriage way. For highway safety, the
designer must provide sight distances of sufficient length that drivers can control the operation of
their vehicles. There are three types of sight distances:

[Link] Stopping sight distance

The stopping sight distance is the sum of the braking distance and the distance traversed during
the brake reaction time. The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficient long enough
to enable a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its
path. The minimum requirement stopping sight distance is given by

V2
d=(0 . 278)(t )(V )+
254 f

Where d=distance (meter)

t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5

seconds

V =initial speed (km/h)

f =coefficient of friction between tires and

roadway

For different terrain type different design speed is given. This also corresponds to the radius
provided.

Design Speed Coefficient of Stopping Sight Passing Sight Reduced Passing

(km/h) Friction (f) Distance (m) Distance (m) Sight Distance for
from formulae design (m)
20 .42 20 160 50
30 .40 30 217 75
40 .38 45 285 125
50 .35 55 345 175
60 .33 85 407 225
70 .31 110 482 275
85 .30 155 573 340
100 .29 205 670 375
120 .28 285 792 425
Table 5.5:- design speeds versus sight distances
Some calculation of stopping sight distances are given below for different design speed criteria

For design speed of 100 km/h

V2
d=(0 . 278)(t )(V )+
254 f

Where: - t=2.5 seconds

f=0.29 (from table5.5)

 d= (0.278)*2.5*100+1002/254*0.29=205.2588922

For design speed of 85 km/h

V2
d=(0 . 278)(t )(V )+
254 f

Where: - t=2.5seconds

f=0.3

d= (0.278)*2.5*85+852/254*0.3=153.891273m

For design speed of 70 km/h

V2
d=(0 . 278)(t )(V )+
254 f

Where: - t=2.5 seconds

f=0.31

d= (0.278)*2.5*70+702/254*0.31=110.8801245m

For design speed of 60 km/h

V2
d=(0 . 278)(t )(V )+
254 f

Where: - t=2.5 seconds

f=0.33

d= (0.278)*2.5*60+602/254*0.33=84.64

For design speed of 50 km/h

V2
d=(0 . 278)(t )(V )+
254 f

Where: - t=2.5 seconds

 f=0.35

d= (0.278)*2.5*50+502/254*0.35=62.87m

[Link] Passing sight distance

In simple terms the passing sight distance is the length of the roadway that the driver of the
passing vehicle must be able to see initially, in order to make a passing maneuver safely and
comfortably. Passing sight distance is considered only on two-lane roads and the capacity of a
two- lane roadway is greatly increased if a large percentage of the roadway’s length can be used
for passing. For horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and widen
cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance.

DESIGN PERCENT PASSING OPPORTUNITY vs. TERRAIN

STANDARD
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-
Urban

DS2 50% 50% 25% 0% 20%

DS3 50% 33% 25% 0% 20%

DS4 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%

DS5 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%

DS6 20% 20% 15% 0% 20%

DS7 20% 20% 15% 0% 20%

Table 5.6 design standard Vs percent passing opportunity

The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:

d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction

d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane

d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver

d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle

In which:-

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + a t1/2)

Where:-

t1 = time of initial maneuver, take 4 sec

a = average acceleration, take 2.4km/h/s

v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h

m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, take 15km/h

d2 = 0.278 vt2

Where:-

t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s

v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h

d 3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is

dependent on the ambient speeds as per the Table below.

Speed Group 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120

(km/h)

d3 (m) 30 55 80 100

Table 5.7 speed group versus d3

d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d 2 less

the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:

d4 = 2d2/3

The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:

PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

For different value of design speed different value of PSD calculated as follows.

For design speed of 100 km/h

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + a t1/2)
 Take t1 =4 second

a =2.4 km/h/s

m =15 km/h

d1 = 0.278*4(100 – 15 + 2.4*4/2) =99.8576m

d2 = 0.278 vt2

Take t2=10s

v=100km/h=100*.278=27.778m/s

Take 1km/h=1000m/3600sec=.278m/s

d2=.278*27.778*10=77.22m

d3=80m [from table 5.7]

d4=2d2/3=2*77.22/3=51.5m

d=d1+d2+d3+d4 =99.86+77.22+80+51.5=308.56m

For design speed of 85 km/h

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + a t1/2)

Take t1 =4 second

a =2.4 km/h/s

m =15 km/h

d1 = 0.278*4(85 – 15 + 2.4*4/2)=83.1776m

d2 = 0.278 vt2

Take t2=10s

v=85km/h=85*.278=23.63m/s

d2=.278*23.63*10=65.69m
 d3=80 [from table 5.7]

d4=2d2/3=2*65.69/3=43.79m

d=d1+d2+d3+d4 =83.1776+65.69+80+43.79=272.66m

For design speed of 70 km/h

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + a t1/2)

Take t1 =4 second

a =2.4 km/h/s

m =15 km/h

d1 = 0.278*4(70 – 15 + 2.4*4/2)=66.4976m

d2 = 0.278 vt2

Take t2=10s

v=70km/h=70*.278=19.46m/s

d2=.278*19.46*10=54.1m

d3=80 [from table 5.7]

d4=2d2/3=2*54.1/3=36.1m

d=d1+d2+d3+d4 =66.4976+54.1+80+36.1=236.67m

For design speed of 60 km/h

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + a t1/2)

Take t1 =4 second

a =2.4 km/h/s

m =15 km/h

d1 = 0.278*4(60 – 15 + 2.4*4/2) = 55.3776m

 d2 = 0.278 vt2

Take t2=10sec

v=60km/h*0.278=16.68

d2=0.278*16.68*10=46.36m

d3=55 m [from table 5.7]

d4=2d2/3=2*46.36/3=30.91m

d=d1+d2+d3+d4 =55.38+46.36+55+30.91=187.65m

For design speed of 50 km/h

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + a t1/2)

Take t1 =4 second

a =2.4 km/h/s

m =15 km/h

d1 = 0.278*4(50 – 15 + 2.4*4/2)=44.26m

d2 = 0.278 vt2

Take t2=10sec

v=50km/h*0.278=13.9

d2=0.278*13.9*10=38.64m

d3=30 m [from table 5.7]

d4=2d2/3 =2*36.64/3=25.76m

d=d1+d2+d3+d4 =44.26+38.64+30+25.76=138.66m

For design speed of 40 km/h

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + a t1/2)
 Take t1 =4 second

a =2.4 km/h/s

m =15 km/h

d1 = 0.278*4(40 – 15 + 2.4*4/2)=33.1376m

d2 = 0.278 vt2

Take t2=10sec

v=40km/h*0.278=11.12

d2=0.278*11.12*10=30.136m

d3=20 assumed

d4=2d2/3=2*30.136/3=20.1m

d=d1+d2+d3+d4 =33.1376+30.136+20+20.1=103.3736m

For design speed of 30 km/h

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + a t1/2)

Take t1 =4 second

a =2.4 km/h/s

m =15 km/h

d1 = 0.278*4(30 – 15 + 2.4*4/2)=22.0176m

d2 = 0.278 vt2

Take t2=10sec

v=30km/h*0.278=8.34

d2=0.278*8.34*10=23.1852m

d3=10 assumed

d4=2d2/3=2*30.136/3=15.4568m
 d=d1+d2+d3+d4 =22.0176+23.1852+10+15.4568=70.6596m

[Link] Horizontal curve sight distance

Once we have a radius that connects the two sections of road way safely and comfortably, it is
needed to make sure that we have to provide an adequate sight distance throughout the horizontal
curve. Sight distance can be the controlling aspect of horizontal curve design where obstructions
are present near the inside of the curve to determine the actual sight distance that we have
provided, It must be considered that the driver can only see the portion of the roadway a head,
there should be a length of roadway between the vehicle and the hazard that is greater than or
equal to the stopping sight distance. Because the sight obstructions for each curve will be
different no general method for calculating the sight distance has been developed.

Setback distance at obstruction of horizontal curves

On horizontal curve with the obstruction on the inside an important consideration is the lateral
clearance so as to obtain the sight distance.

It may be noted that

. Sight distance is measured along the arc of the curve

. If the pavement has two or more lanes, sight distance is measured along the arc at the centre
of the inner lane. From the following figure the set back distance calculation is as follows

Rs
Fig 5.3 clearance for horizontal curve

Criteria’s are:-

1) S=L

M=RS (1-COS(Δ/2))

2) S<L

M=Rs (1-(COS (90S/πRs))

3) S>L

M=L (2S-L)/8* Rs

Where: - S= the sight distance provided

Rs = R - lane width/2

Δ
L=100
D
Δ= the deflection angle

Calculation of the Middle ordinates of the first 12 curves is shown below.

CURVE 1

Rs = 178.33

L = 151.062

S =115.171

S<L

M = Rs (1-(COS (90S/π Rs))

M = 178.33*(1 – cos[(90*115.1718)/(3.14 *178.33)] ) = 9.21

CURVE 2

Rs = 198.33

L = 279.146

S =115.1718

S<L

M = Rs (1-(COS (90S/π Rs))

M = 198.339*(1 – cos[(90*115.1718)/(3.14*198.33)]) = 8.2951

CURVE 3

Rs = 118.33

L = 46.313

S = 79.29

S>L

M=L*(2S-L)/8* Rs

M = 46.313*(2*79.29 – 46.313)/(8*118.33) = 5.4929

CURVE 4

Rs = 398.33

L = 212.5045

S = 157.160
S<L

M = Rs (1-(COS (90S/π Rs))

M = 398.33*(1 – cos(90*157.160/3.14*398.33)) = 7.719

CURVE 5

Rs = 148.33

L = 874.665

S = 90.532

S<L

M = Rs (1-(COS (90S/π Rs))

M = 148.33*(1 – cos(90*90.532/3.14*148.33) = 6.8544

CURVE 6

Rs =68.325

L = 106.2892

S = 58.766

S<L

M = Rs (1-(COS (90S/π Rs))

M = 68.325*(1 – cos(90*58.766/3.14*68.325)) = 6.216

CURVE 7

Rs = 548.33
L = 491.875

S = 115.1718

S<L

M = Rs (1-(COS (90S/π Rs))

M = 548.33*(1 – cos(90*115.1718/3.14*548.33) = 3.0186

CURVE 8

Rs = 298.33

L = 205.037

S = 157.160

S<L

M = Rs (1-(COS (90S/π Rs))

M = 298.33*(1 – cos(90*157.160/3.14*298.33)) = 10.281

CURVE 9

Rs = 298.33

L = 296.199

S = 115.1718

S<L

M = Rs (1-(COS (90S/π Rs))

M = 298.33*(1 – cos(90*115.1718/3.14*298.33)) = 5.536

CURVE 10

Rs = 298.33

L = 268.629

S = 90.573
S<L

M = Rs (1-(COS (90S/π Rs))

M = 298.33*(1 – cos(90*90.573/3.14*298.33)) = 3.4279

CURVE 11

Rs = 88.325

L = 192.4768

S = 68.68

S<L

M = Rs (1-(COS (90S/π Rs))

M = 88.325*(1 – cos(90*68.68/3.14*88.325)) = 6.588

CURVE 12

Rs = 158.33

L = 263.325

S = 90.573

S<L

M = Rs (1-(COS (90S/π Rs))

M = 158.33*(1 – cos(90*90.53/3.14*158.33)) = 6.4276

The calculated values of the middle ordinates for all curves are tabulated in the next pages
curve PI Rpro Rs design PSD SSD SSD from L S remark M
number speed calculate calculated table curve ssd provided middle
d length ordinate

1 244.731 180 178.33 70 435.2206 115.171857 110 151.06294 115.1718572 S<L 9.21015
2 639.704 200 198.33 70 435.2206 115.171857 110 279.14686 115.1718572 S<L 8.295161
3 1007.88 120 118.33 55 324.0267 79.2920649 60 46.31376 79.29206489 S>L 5.492989
4 1280.54 400 398.33 85 546.4145 157.1608 155 212.50457 157.1607996 S<L 7.719756
5 1450.16 150 148.33 60 352.758 90.5732012 85 874.66523 90.57320119 S<L 6.854439
6 1633.26 70 68.325 45 266.5641 58.7661757 50 106.28927 58.76617567 S<L 6.216379
7 2178.02 550 548.33 70 435.2206 115.171857 110 491.875 115.1718572 S<L 3.018675
8 2912.35 300 298.33 85 546.4145 157.1608 155 205.03722 157.1607996 S<L 10.28132
9 3149.8 300 298.33 70 435.2206 115.171857 110 296.19936 115.1718572 S<L 5.536251
10 3357.8 300 298.33 60 352.758 90.5732012 85 268.62938 90.57320119 S<L 3.427968
11 3629.19 90 88.325 50 295.2954 68.6897231 55 192.4768 68.68972305 S<L 6.588488
12 3720.59 160 158.33 60 352.758 90.5732012 85 263.32526 90.57320119 S<L 6.427614
13 3904.36 90 88.325 50 295.2954 68.6897231 55 204.35839 68.68972305 S<L 6.588488
14 4064.69 60 58.325 40 237.8328 49.5214228 45 22.12926 49.52142275 S>L 3.647751
15 4152.51 50 48.325 37 220.594 44.3003923 45 69.270479 45 S<L 5.139966
16 4228.59 90 88.325 50 295.2954 68.6897231 55 86.722972 68.68972305 S<L 6.588488
17 4319.97 80 78.325 45 266.5641 58.7661757 50 179.32624 58.76617567 S<L 5.442768
18 4534.93 30 28.325 30 180.3702 33.0683003 30 178.21369 33.0683003 S<L 4.686594
19 4572.06 120 118.33 50 295.2954 68.6897231 55 52.86218 68.68972305 S>L 4.719805
20 4787.06 40 38.325 34 203.3552 39.3237279 35 201.79194 39.32372794 S<L 4.930023
21 4850.56 50 48.325 35 209.1015 40.9554643 35 221.70268 40.9554643 S<L 4.2708
22 4992.19 30 28.325 27 163.1314 28.6618232 30 22.689809 30 S>L 3.735927
23 5105.39 30 28.325 27 163.1314 28.6618232 30 94.461471 30 S<L 3.876751
24 5136.27 30 28.325 30 180.3702 33.0683003 30 45.593788 33.0683003 S<L 4.686594
25 5329.62 80 78.325 45 266.5641 58.7661757 50 219.30666 58.76617567 S<L 5.442768
26 5449.87 90 88.325 50 295.2954 68.6897231 55 185.80643 68.68972305 S<L 6.588488
27 5586.7 200 198.33 70 435.2206 115.171857 110 531.60407 115.1718572 S<L 8.295161
 28 5735.66 250 248.33 50 295.2954 68.6897231 55 595.70269 68.68972305 S<L 2.369364
29 5866.46 90 88.325 50 295.2954 68.6897231 55 277.98384 68.68972305 S<L 6.588488
30 5996.74 90 88.325 50 295.2954 68.6897231 55 342.72122 68.68972305 S<L 6.588488
31 6192.31 30 28.325 30 180.3702 33.0683003 30 79.158184 33.0683003 S<L 4.686594
32 6258.54 30 28.325 27 163.1314 28.6618232 30 39.490718 30 S<L 3.876751
33 6319.38 50 48.325 35 209.1015 40.9554643 35 14.916905 40.9554643 S>L 2.584955
34 6486.54 30 28.325 29 174.6239 31.5723228 30 88.170035 31.57232283 S<L 4.282942
35 6608.24 30 28.325 30 180.3702 33.0683003 30 8.4392116 33.0683003 S>L 2.148811
36 6643.27 200 198.33 70 435.2206 115.171857 110 192.06418 115.1718572 S<L 8.295161
37 6741.13 100 98.325 50 295.2954 68.6897231 55 32.328102 68.68972305 S>L 4.317456
38 7049.14 40 38.325 40 237.8328 49.5214228 45 96.387679 49.52142275 S<L 7.718224
39 7166.05 60 58.325 30 180.3702 33.0683003 30 65.197492 33.0683003 S<L 2.326063
40 7248.23 40 38.325 40 237.8328 49.5214228 45 109.66736 49.52142275 S<L 7.718224
41 7548.53 300 298.33 70 435.2206 115.171857 110 645.93293 115.1718572 S<L 5.536251
42 7748.05 200 198.33 50 295.2954 68.6897231 55 235.35813 68.68972305 S<L 2.964025
43 7926.91 200 198.33 50 295.2954 68.6897231 55 298.10327 68.68972305 S<L 2.964025
44 8043.03 200 198.33 60 352.758 90.5732012 85 399.49188 90.57320119 S<L 5.143943

Table :- 5.8 middle ordinates for each curves