34 TOPIC 2

KEY TERMS

IP address: a unique
address that is given to a
device when it connects to a network
media access control (MAC) address: a unique address that is given to the NIC
in each device at the point of manufacture
modem: network hardware that converts between analogue and digital
signals
NETWORKS

TABLE 2.1: NETWORK COMPONENTS (Continued)

Network component

router: network hardware

that reads IP addresses to
Switch
send data to the correct network or device
routing table: a database that stores all the known routes across a network to
different devices
switch: network hardware that reads MAC addresses to send data to the
correct device
Router

Modem
Description of role
A switch was developed as an improvement to the inefficiency of a hub. A
switch is also used to connect several devices in a LAN network. The major
difference between a switch and a hub is that instead of transmitting data
packets to all devices connected to the switch, it only sends the data packets to
the intended destination. It does this by using a device's media access control
(MAC) address. A switch records all the MAC addresses of devices that are
attached to it and stores them in a table. It looks at the
data packet to find the destination MAC address and forwards the data packet
on to this device only. This reduces the amount of traffic in the network and as
a result reduces the number of data collisions. This improves the performance
of the network.

A router is used to forward data packets between devices in a network. It uses

a special database called a routing table to send data packets along the correct
route to their intended destination. It does this by reading the internet
protocol (IP) address of the destination device that is stored in the data
packet. It then sends the data packet towards the destination address and
selects the most suitable route for it to take.

Modem is short for modulator- demodulator. It is used to convert analogue

signals to digital and vice versa. For example, it takes analogue signals that are
sent down telephone wires across the internet and converts them to digital
signals to be processed by a device. A modem is built into all modern devices
that can
be connected to the internet.
What it looks like

100000
(Continued)
TOPIC 2

KEY TERMS

bridge: network hardware that is used to connect one LAN to another LAN
gateway: network hardware that acts as a translator between the two
networks, converting data from one protocol
to another to allow the
networks to communicate with each other
protocol: a set of rules that govern the transfer of data wide area network
(WAN): a type of network that is normally spread across several buildings or
sites; the largest example is the internet
NETWORKS

TABLE 2.1: NETWORK COMPONENTS (Continued)

Network component

Gateway
Bridge
Description of role
A gateway is used to connect one LAN network to another LAN network, or a
LAN network to a wide area network (WAN). One network will often use
different protocols to another network. This means that when they are
connected, they are not able to communicate effectively with each other. It's
like they are speaking two different languages. A gateway acts as a translator
between the two networks, converting data from one protocol to another to
allow the networks to communicate with each other.

A bridge is used to connect one LAN to another LAN. It does this to create one
larger LAN. An organisation such as a university may use a bridge. The
university may have many LAN networks in different buildings and sites
around the university grounds. The LANS may be too far apart to work
effectively as one single large LAN, so a bridge can be used to join each of the
LAN networks to create a
large LAN. A bridge works in a very similar way to a switch. It reads the MAC
address of a device from the data packet and forwards it on to its correct
destination. If the bridge sees that the MAC address is for a device in another
connected LAN network, it will forward the data packet across the bridge to
that network.
What it looks like
35
(Continued)
36 TOPIC 2

KEY TERMS

repeater: a network device that is used to boost the

strength of an electrical signal
server: a central device
in a network that stores
data and can also provide services; it accepts and responds to requests that
are made for different types of data
transmission media: the types of cables or signals that are used to transmit
data across a network
wireless access point (WAP): network hardware that transmits and receives
radio wave signals
NETWORKS

TABLE 2.1: NETWORK COMPONENTS (Continued)

Network
component
Description of role Electrical signals are transmitted around a network to
send data.
Shortly after an electrical signal is sent from a device in the network
it will start to get weaker. This is because electrical signals are prone to
interference caused by the type of transmission media used. You will learn
more about the different types Repeater of transmission media later in this
topic. If the signal gets too weak it will not be able to reach the intended
destination device. A repeater is used to boost the strength of an electrical
signal, meaning it can travel further across a network. A repeater can even
reconstruct an electrical signal that has become distorted due to being too
 weak.

Server

Wireless
access
point
(WAP)
A server is a device that accepts and responds to requests that are made
for different types of data that can be stored on the server, or for services
provided by the server. A common example of a server is a web server. This
type of server stores the web pages for a website and responds to requests for
the web pages by sending the data for the web page to the requesting device.
Servers are single board devices, like a computer that has a single board called
the motherboard. Servers are often stacked together in a rack so that they can
provide many different services like storing files, managing printing jobs and
managing web page requests.
An NIC allows a device to connect to other components in a network using
an ethernet connection. However,
if a device has a WNIC it will need to connect to the network using
a wireless connection point. This wireless connection point is created using a
wireless access point (WAP). A WAP receives wireless radio wave signals
transmitted by devices with
a WNIC and transmits them to their intended destination.
What it looks like
TOPIC 2

Figure 2.1 An example of

a network (see page 42 for an
explanation of 'client')

SKILLS
INTERPRETATION, CREATIVITY
37
37
NETWORKS

It is possible for some network components to be combined into a single

device or built into other devices. For example, if you think of the device that
you call a router in your home or school, this is normally a combination of a
modem, a router, a gateway and a wireless access point. Many also contain a
switch as well. All routers have to be set up to act as a gateway, but note that
not all gateways are routers!

servers

hub switch
firewall
internet

router

hub switch
client
client
Wi-Fi router
mobile phone
tablet

client
client

client
client
printer

ACTIVITY 1
laptop

Consider the network components that you have just learnt about. Choose
three components that you are most interested in. Create a poster that could
be displayed in your classroom to explain the role of these three components.
Include a diagram on your poster that shows the role of each component.

NETWORK DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

NETWORK TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Devices can be connected to a network using a wired connection or a wireless
connection. The types of wired connection that can be used are:

twisted pair cable

coaxial cable
fibre optic cable

powerline.

The types of wireless connection that can be used are:

microwave

radio wave
light

satellite.
38 TOPIC 2

KEY TERMS

coaxial cable: a copper cable that has a single central wire with insulating
layers; it can be used to
transmit data across a network
twisted pair cable: a copper cable that has
two twisted wires; it can
be used to transmit data
across a network
Twisted pair cable
NETWORKS
A twisted pair cable is a type of copper cable that has two copper wires. Each
copper wire has an insulated layer. The two copper wires are twisted around
each other, and there is an outer plastic layer covering them.

plastic cover
cable coating
book
copper wire

▲ Figure 2.2 The layers of a twisted pair cable

A twisted pair cable can be unshielded or shielded. The diagram shows an

unshielded twisted pair cable. A shielded twisted pair cable has a copper
shield layer around the twisted wires, which is then covered by the plastic
outer coating.
There are several characteristics of twisted pair cables.

They transmit data using electrical currents.

They can transmit data up to a speed of 10 Gbps.

They are cheap to manufacture.

They can suffer from electromagnetic interference, so are only used to carry
data over short distances.

They are easy to install.

They are mainly used for telephone communications and for ethernet
connections in a local area network within one building.

Coaxial cable
A coaxial cable is a type of copper cable. It has a central copper wire that has
an insulated layer, a metal conductor layer and a protective plastic outer layer.
TOPIC 2

KEY TERMS

fibre optic cable: a cable

that is made up of fine strands of glass or plastic powerline: a device that
plugs into a power socket and transmits data over the electrical wiring to
another device on the same circuit
NETWORKS

Fibre optic cable

39

A fibre optic cable has many very thin strands of glass or plastic that make up
the core of the cable. The core is covered by a cladding, which is covered by a
plastic coating. This plastic coating is covered by strengthening fibres and
then an outer coating.

cable jacket
strengthening fibres

Figure 2.4 The layers of a fibre optic cable

coating
cladding core
II

There are several characteristics of fibre optic cables.

They transmit data using light.

They can transmit data up to speeds of 1 Gbps.

They are expensive to manufacture.

They are not prone to electromagnetic interference.

They are difficult to install, as the cables can be fragile.

They are often used for internet connection and transmitting data over long
distances.

Powerline
Powerline is a type of connection that is created using adapters that are
plugged into an electrical plug socket. When a powerline adapter is plugged
into a socket, it transmits data over the electrical wiring in a building. Two
powerline adapters are used to create a connection between the two points.

protective plastic layer

braided
metal conductor
insulator
copper conductor

Figure 2.3 The layers of a

coaxial cable

There are several characteristics of coaxial cables.

They transmit data using radio frequency signals.

They can transmit data at speeds of up to 10 Mbps.

They are cheap to manufacture, but not as cheap as twisted pair cables.

They are less prone to electromagnetic interference because of the braided

metal conductor layer.

They are difficult to install, as they can be stiff and difficult to bend.

They are mainly used in cable TV connections and sometimes in internet

connections.
80
Плов

Figure 2.5 A powerline connection

There are several characteristics of powerline connections.

They transmit data using electrical wiring.

They can transmit data at speeds of up to 2 Gbps.

They are relatively expensive to manufacture.

40 TOPIC 2

KEY TERMS

electromagnetic waves: a form of radiation that travels through the air

infrared light: electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than visible
light but shorter than radio waves; it can transmit signals
only over very short distances
microwaves:
electromagnetic radiation that can be used to create a wireless connection in a
network; they operate only over short distances
radio waves: electromagnetic radiation that can be used to create
a wireless connection in
a network; they operate over longer distances than microwaves
NETWORKS

They are prone to electromagnetic interference and are limited by the

condition of the electrical wiring in the building.

They are very easy to install, as they can be simply plugged into any electrical
socket.

They are often used in large houses and buildings to allow data to travel more
effectively over a longer distance. This can include extending an internet
connection to an area that gets poor coverage in a house.

Microwaves
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves that can be used to create a wireless
connection between technologies. Microwaves are point to point, which
means that they can only travel in a straight line from one technology to
another. Microwaves are high-frequency waves (between 1 GHz to 300 GHz)
that are short in wavelength. For this reason they are normally used to
transmit data over relatively short distances where there is a direct line of
sight from one technology to another.
Communications between towers such as cell phone towers is normally done
using microwaves. This is because microwaves are unidirectional, so they can
be focused like a beam of light and are not scattered around. Neighbouring cell
towers are positioned so that there is a direct line of sight between them.
TOPIC 2

infrared light

▲ Figure 2.8 Infrared can be used to wirelessly connect a keyboard to a

computer

KEY TERMS

ground station: a base

on Earth that receives and transmits radio waves to a satellite
satellite: a device that orbits the Earth and uses radio waves to transmit data
NETWORKS
41

visible light, but shorter than radio waves. Infrared is used to transmit data
over short distances because it needs a direct line of sight and cannot travel
through any obstacles.
Infrared is sometimes used as an alternative way to connect peripheral
devices such as a keyboard and mouse to a computer. However, it is not a very
popular method for connecting devices as an infrared signal is quite weak and
requires a direct line of sight between the peripheral and the computer.

Satellite
A satellite is an artificial body that is sent into space to orbit the Earth.
Satellites transmit data using radio waves. Radio waves are used to transmit
data to the satellite from a base on Earth called a ground station. The radio
waves can travel through each layer of Earth's atmosphere to the satellite. The
satellite can also transmit radio waves to the ground station on Earth.

The most common use of satellite communications is in global positioning

systems (GPSs). If a person has a portable device that has GPS, they will
normally be in the line of sight of at least 10 satellites at any one time. A
process called triangulation can be used to find a user. This is when at least
three satellites are used to pinpoint the location of a user.

transmitting frequency
satellite

retransmitting frequency

► Figure 2.6 Microwaves can

be used to transmit data from
one cell phone tower to another

Radio waves
cell phone towers

Radio waves are also electromagnetic waves that are used to create a wireless
connection between technologies. Radio waves are omnidirectional, which
means that they can travel in all directions and do not need a line of sight.
Radio waves are lower in frequency than microwaves
(3 kHz to 1 GHz) and are longer in wavelength. They are normally used to
transmit data over both short and long distances, and they can pass through
solid objects such as walls.

▲ Figure 2.7 Radio waves can be used to transmit data between a WAP and a
mobile phone
Wireless LAN networks use radio waves to communicate. Radio waves can be
sent from devices such as a WAP to other devices within range. These devices
could be in a different room in a building, as radio waves can travel through
walls.

Light
Infrared light can be used to transmit data wirelessly from one device to
another. A beam of infrared light is directed through the air from one device
to the other, so there needs to be a direct line of sight between the devices.
The wavelength of infrared light is longer than the wavelength of
►Figure 2.9 Radio waves can be transmitted between a ground station and a
satellite
transmitting antenna:
TV centre
users:
satellite TV receivers

SKILLS
INTERPRETATION, CREATIVITY
ACTIVITY 2

Create a revision resource for the exam about the different types of
transmission media that can be used in a network. You could create:

⚫ flash cards

⚫ an audio podcast
⚫ a multiple choice quiz
⚫ a mind map.
Swap your revision resource with a partner. Use your partner's revision
resource to refresh
your memory of the different types of transmission media.
Was there anything in their revision resource that you hadn't thought of?
Was there anything you had included that they hadn't?
42 TOPIC 2

KEY TERMS

client: a computer in a client-server network that

is not a point of control in a
network; it accesses data
and services on a server
client-server network: a type of network that has central servers working as a
point of control in the network and client computers that connect to them
NETWORKS

TYPES OF NETWORK MODELS AND METRICS

You have learnt about the different ways that data can be transmitted in a
network, but you also need to know the different kinds of structure a network
can have. There are four main ways that a network can be structured:

client-server network

peer-to-peer network

ad hoc network

tethering.

CLIENT-SERVER NETWORK
There are two types of devices in a client-server network: the client
computers and a server. A server is a computer that is a point of control in the
network - it 'serves' the client computers that connect to it. The server will
have a dedicated role in the network, for example:

file server - stores and manages files

web server - stores web pages and processes requests for the web pages

print server - receives print jobs and transmits them to the correct printer.
Each client computer that is connected to the network sends requests to the
servers in the network for data or services. Table 2.2 shows some benefits and
drawbacks of a client-server network.

TABLE 2.2: BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF A CLIENT-SERVER NETWORK

Benefits
Security for the network can be carried out by a server. Each user does not
need to be solely responsible for this.
Updates for any software can be carried out by a server. Each user does not
need to update their own computer. An organisation can be sure that
everyone is using the same version of software. This can help avoid
compatibility issues.
A backup of all files can be created from the data stored on the server. Each
user does not need to remember to back up their own files.

If a client computer crashes, it will not affect the rest of the network. The user
will also be able to use another client computer in the network and access all
the data and resources they were using.
Drawbacks
A server is an expensive piece of technology to buy. A client-server network
can need several servers, so it can be expensive to set up.
The network will need specialist technicians to maintain the servers and the
network. This means they can be expensive to maintain.

If a server fails then the users of the client computers in the network will not
be able to access the resources and services provided by that server.
TOPIC 2
Figure 2.10 A client-server network

KEY TERMS

peer: a single computer in a peer-to-peer network peer-to-peer network: a

type of network that does not have a server as a point of control; all devices on
a peer-to-peer network are equal
client
client

client
NETWORKS

client
client
client

server

client
client
43

It is possible to set up very large networks using a client-server structure. The

large amount of traffic that would be created by all the clients on the network
can be managed by the different types of servers.

PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK
There is just one type of device in a peer-to-peer network and this is called a
peer computer. This type of network can be as simple as one device connected
to another, for example a mobile phone connected to a computer. A peer-to-
peer network does not have a controlling computer at the centre. Each peer
computer in the network has the same level of importance. The main reason
that peer-to-peer networks are created is to share data. Table 2.3 shows some
benefits and drawbacks of a peer-to-peer network.

TABLE 2.3: BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF A PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK

Benefits
Each peer computer can share files and resources. For example, they can
share any files that they want others to see, and they can share resources such
as a printer. To do this, they just need to set the files or printer to be public.
Users can choose which files and resources they want to share and which they
want to keep private.
It is cheap to set up as it just needs transmission media to connect the
computers. No expensive servers need to be purchased.
The network does not require any specialist technicians and is therefore also
cheap to maintain.
If one peer computer fails, it will only be the public files and resources stored
on that computer that will be unavailable to other users.
Drawbacks
The network is less secure than a client-server network, as each user is
responsible for the security of their own computer and data. A user that is not
as cautious with this may affect others on the network.

Each user is responsible for backing up their own data.

If too many peer computers are added to the network, the volume of network
traffic can slow down the network.
46 TOPIC 2
NETWORKS

This type of network is usually a small network consisting of two devices, a

mobile phone and another device such as a laptop or a tablet. A user will often
tether their laptop or tablet to their phone to use its internet connection while
travelling, for example to watch a movie on a larger screen than the one on
their phone. Users may also choose to tether their laptop to their phone so
that they can obtain documents emailed to them and edit them on a larger
screen when they do not have a Wi-Fi connection.
TOPIC 2
NETWORKS

NETWORK METRICS

►Network metrics are ways that

the performance of a network
can be measured
PERFORMANCE
1
60in
2
3
4
5
6
78
47

► Figure 2.13 A laptop tethered

to a mobile phone
Table 2.5 shows some benefits and drawbacks of tethering.

TABLE 2.5: BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF TETHERING

Benefits

Any device can be given an internet connection, even when a Wi-Fi network is
not available.

Tethering means that multiple data plans are not needed for each device a
user has. This can save on costs as only the mobile phone needs a data plan.

Tethering can be more secure than using a public Wi-Fi connection, as the
network created is a private network.
Drawbacks

Tethering can drain the battery of the devices, especially the mobile phone. If
there is no ability to charge the device, the connection is not likely to last a
long time.

Tethering will use the data in the data plan for the mobile phone. Streaming
video or downloading large files could use up a lot of the data allowance in the
data plan in a short period of time.
It is essential to set a strong password for the tethered connection. If not, it
could be easy for someone to hack the tethered connection and access a
person's data.
KEY TERMS
The performance of a network can be measured in several different ways.
These are called the network metrics. Table 2.6 shows the network metrics
that you need to know about.

TABLE 2.6: THE MAIN NETWORK METRICS

Network metric

bandwidth: the maximum amount of data that can

Speed

be transferred from one device to another in a set amount of time

speed: the speed at which the data is transferred from one device to another
throughput: the amount of data that actually passes through the network
from one device to another in a
set amount of time
Bandwidth

Throughput
Description
One of the most used network metrics. The network speed is simply the speed
at which the data is transferred from one device to another. It is usually
measured in bits per second (bps) or sometimes bytes per second (Bps).
The maximum amount of data that can be transferred from one device to
another in a set amount of time. This is also usually measured in bps or Bps
and is the main metric that affects the speed of the network. For example, a
network that has a bandwidth of 50 Mbps can transfer up to 50 million bits of
data per second. A higher bandwidth will normally mean faster speeds for the
network. The available bandwidth of a network is shared between the devices
that are part of the network. This means that the more devices there are on a
network, the more the bandwidth will need to be shared, which will make
data transfer speeds slower.
The volume of data that actually passes through the network from one device
to another in a set period of time. The bandwidth is the maximum speed of the
network, which is the potential volume of data that can travel from one device
to another. The throughput is the actual speed of the network, which is the
actual volume of data that travels between devices in a set period of time.
Throughput is also measured in bps.

(Continued)
48 TOPIC 2

KEY TERMS

availability: a measure
of the amount of time a network is available for use
error rate: a measure of
the number of errors that
occur in a network
jitter: a measure of the disruption that occurs
when data is transmitted across a network
latency: the delay that
can be present in the
transmission of data across the network
packet loss: a measure
of the number of packets that were transmitted from the sending device but
did not arrive at the receiving device
scalability: how well the capacity of a network can be increased or decreased
to respond to different amounts of data transfer
NETWORKS

TABLE 2.6: THE MAIN NETWORK METRICS (Continued)

Network metric Scalability

Latency

Error rate

Packet loss

Availability

Jitter
Description
A network's ability to be able to handle a larger volume of data than it
normally handles. One way that a network can be made scalable is by being
able to increase its bandwidth when necessary. For example, if an online
company has a sale at 50% off for their products, they will need to scale their
network to be able to handle the amount of extra traffic they will potentially
get from all the customers who take advantage of the sale. The delay in the
transmission of data across the network. Latency is measured using the time
taken for data to make a round trip in the network. This means how long it
takes to go from the sender to the receiver and back to the sender again. For
example, if a user sends a request to a web server for a web page, the web
page is then returned to the user. The time taken between the request sent
and the web page returned is called latency. A network with low latency times
has a higher performance than a network with high latency times.
A measure of the number of errors that occur in a network. It is usually
measured as a percentage. The types of errors measured include data packet
loss, data packet corruption and data collisions. A network with a high error
rate can cause problems, as each data packet that does not arrive correctly
will need to be re-sent. This will create more traffic and reduce the
performance of the network.
A type of error that can occur in a network. It is a measure of the percentage
of transmitted packets that were not received at the receiving device. Packet
loss is also normally measured as a percentage. A packet loss of just 1% can
affect the performance of a network.
A measure of the amount of time a network is available for use. It is calculated
as the percentage of time a network is actually available out of the total time it
should have been available. The network may have been unavailable due to
power outages, hardware issues or downtime to update the network. Network
availability is normally measured as a percentage.
A measure of the disruption that occurs when data is transmitted across a
network. The disruption measured is often caused by network congestion. If
data sent across a network gets disrupted because of latency or network
errors, the network can start to lose data packets. The process of this
disruption is the jitter of the network.
TOPIC 2
SKILLS

ANALYSIS, CREATIVITY

KEY TERM

protocol: a set of rules that govern the transmission of data in a network

ACTIVITY 5
NETWORKS

Use the internet to:

⚫ do a speed test on your computer

⚫ find out how throughput is calculated.
49

Sometimes a network will need to be scaled. For example, a company might

double in size, and so need twice as many employees. Or it may open another
office in a different location, or move to a hybrid working model where some
employees work remotely for some or all of the working week.
Use the internet to research how a network could be scaled to cater for these
changing demands.

NETWORK PROTOCOLS

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
You have learnt a lot about the components that are used in a network, how a
network can be structured and how the performance of a network can be
measured. You will now learn about the different ways in which devices can
communicate using different network protocols. A protocol is a set of rules
that govern the transmission of data in a network. There are a wide range of
protocols that you need to understand. Most of these protocols are regulated
by an organisation called the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE). The first set of protocols are communication protocols:

ethernet

Wi-Fi

Bluetooth

ZigBee®

cellular

infrared.

Ethernet
Ethernet is a protocol used to connect devices in
a LAN using a wired connection. An ethernet cable is used to connect devices
that use the ethernet protocol. Most of the wired connections that are created
in a network are done using an ethernet cable. Ethernet cables can be coaxial,
twisted pair or fibre optic.
Ethernet was invented in 1973 by an American engineer named Robert
Metcalfe. He invented it to develop a set of rules to allow devices to be
connected using a cable so that they could communicate with each other.
Ethernet could initially transfer data at an average of 3 Mbps. It has been
developed and improved over the years and can now reach speeds of data
transfer up to 100 Gbps.
▲ A twisted pair ethernet cable
50 TOPIC 2

KEY TERM

Wi-Fi: a type of wireless

data transmission that uses radio waves to transmit data
NETWORKS

Ethernet is still used to connect many devices in organisations, because it is:

cheap to buy (low manufacturing costs)

more secure than a wireless connection

reliable; it uses error detection methods to detect any errors in data

transmission

compatible with many devices that require a wired connection to a network;

many devices such as computers and routers are built with a port for an
ethernet cable

easy to install; it only requires an ethernet cable to be plugged into an

ethernet port.

Wi-Fi
Have you ever wirelessly connected your laptop to the router in your home? If
you have, you have used a Wi-Fi connection to do this. Wi-Fi is a protocol that
is used to transmit data wirelessly between two devices. Wi-Fi transmits data
using radio waves, and it can transmit data using two different frequencies -
2.4 GHz and 5 GHz. Currently 2.4 Ghz is the most common frequency in use.
However, this frequency is also used by several other devices, so it can often
have a lot of traffic. The 5 GHz frequency was developed partly for this reason,
but also because it allows faster transfer of data.

ntre
Wifi
Connected
▲A Wi-Fi connection can be made from devices such as smartphones

KEY TERMS

Bluetooth: a type of
wireless data transmission that uses radio waves to transmit data between
two devices that are in close range (within 10 m) pairing: the name given to
the connection made between two devices that are using a Bluetooth
connection
Wi-Fi was first developed in 1997 and could initially transfer data with speeds
up to 2 Mbps using the 2.4 GHz frequency. The 5 GHz frequency was
developed in 2009, and transfer speeds increased up to speeds of 20 Gbps. By
2023, six versions of the Wi-Fi protocol had been released, meaning Wi-Fi can
now transfer data at speeds up to 10 Gbps. Wi-Fi using the 2.4 GHz frequency
can reach up to 45 m. Wi-Fi using the 5 GHz frequency can reach up to 15 m.

Bluetooth
Have you ever connected wireless headphones to your mobile phone? If you
have, you have probably used a Bluetooth connection to do this. Bluetooth is a
protocol that is used to transmit data wirelessly between two devices.
Bluetooth also transmits data using radio waves. Bluetooth only uses the 2.4
GHz frequency to transmit data.
Bluetooth was invented in 1994, but it was not used in a commercial product
until 2000, when the company Ericsson launched a wireless Bluetooth
headset. To create a Bluetooth connection, devices need to be connected using
a system called pairing. When a user wants to connect two devices, for
example a smartphone and a pair of wireless headphones, they will do this
using the host device. In this case it will be the smartphone. They will use the
Bluetooth setting on the phone to scan for devices that allow a Bluetooth
connection. A list of compatible devices will be shown on the phone and the
user can select the one they want, in this case the wireless headphones. The
Bluetooth connection can then be created between the phone and the wireless
headphones. Sometimes this can require entering a PIN code into the phone.
You can connect up to seven different devices to the host device, but each
device must be within 10 m of the host device. A Bluetooth connection can
transfer data at speeds of up to 3 Mbps.
TOPIC 2
NETWORKS
51

A smart watch and a smartphone can be paired

using Bluetooth

KEY TERM

ZigBee®: a type of wireless data transmission that uses radio waves to

transmit data between two devices; it is one of the main methods of
connection used in the internet of things (IoT)
A touchscreen home control system uses ZigBeeR to control heating and lights
ZigBee®
Have you ever used your voice to command a virtual assistant (e.g. Amazon
Alexa) to turn on the lights in your home, or change the temperature of a
room? If so, you have used a ZigBee® connection to do this. ZigBee® is a
protocol that is used to transmit data wirelessly between devices. ZigBeeR
transmits data using radio waves using the 2.4 Ghz frequency.
ZigBee® is a very similar protocol to Bluetooth®, but is normally used to
connect different types of devices. Bluetooth is used to connect devices such
as smartphones and wireless headphones, or smartphones to a car
entertainment system. ZigBee® is used to connect devices such as smart light
bulbs to virtual assistant technology. ZigBee connections are the basis of the
IoT. To create a ZigBeeR network in a building, a ZigBee hub is needed. All
devices that can use ZigBeeR will be connected to the ZigBee hub to allow
them to communicate. ZigBee® can transfer data at speeds up to 250 Kbps,
and it has a range of up to 100 m.
52 TOPIC 2

SKILLS

ANALYSIS, CREATIVITY
ACTIVITY 6
NETWORKS

Create a table that shows a comparison between the wireless connections of

Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and ZigBee®. You could choose key features of the
connections and add descriptions for each. For example:

Feature
Transmission method
Cellular
TOPIC 2

Wi-Fi
Radio waves
Bluetooth
Radio waves
ZigBee®
Radio waves
SKILLS

ANALYSIS, CREATIVITY
KEY TERMS

base station: a large tower that is used to transmit data across a cellular
network
cellular network: a type
of network made up of cells that each have a
base station that is used
to transmit signals used by mobile phones
Radio frequency
Maximum data transfer speed

Have you ever called a friend or a family member using a mobile phone? If you
have, you will have used a cellular network. A cellular network is made up of
lots of cells that cover large geographic areas, for example a country. Each cell
uses some hardware called a base station. The cells in a cellular network are
arranged in a honeycomb structure.

mobile phone
talks to local
base station
local base station
signals central
base station
central base station transmits signal to receiving local base station in other
cell

local base station

transmits to
receiving mobile phone

Figure 2.14 A cellular network structure

network cells

A cellular network is what mobile phone users connect to when they want to
carry out actions on their phone, such as make a call. Both radio waves and
microwaves are used to transmit data in a cellular network. Radio waves are
normally used to transmit data from a phone to a base station and
microwaves are often used to transmit data from one base station to another.
When a user calls their friend using a phone, the data is transmitted to the
base station in the cell that the user is currently placed in. If their friend is
within the same cell, then the data is transmitted from that same base station
to the friend's phone. If the friend is within a different cell, the data is sent
from base station to base station until it reaches the base station in the cell
where the friend is. It is then transmitted from this base station to the friend's
phone.
The global system for mobile communications (GSM) is a set of protocols that
are used to transmit data across cellular networks. These are the rules that
govern how the data is sent. These protocols can also be known by the term
2G (2nd generation) network. These protocols have been expanded upon and
improved to first create the 3G network, then the 4G network, and most
recently the 5G network. The different generations of networks were
developed to improve the data transfer rate:
SKILLS

ANALYSIS, CREATIVITY
KEY TERM

OSI model: a theoretical model that is the basis of many protocols

NETWORKS

2G has a data transfer rate of speeds up to 0.1 Mbps

3G has a data transfer rate of speeds up to 42 Mbps

4G has a data transfer rate of speeds up to 150 Mbps

5G has a data transfer rate of speeds up to 10 Gbps.

ACTIVITY 7

Use the internet to find out why mobile phone calls sometimes cut off mid-
conversation. What is happening in the cellular network for this to occur?

Infrared
53

You learnt about how data is transmitted using infrared earlier in this topic.
The protocol used
in infrared communication is the national electrical code (NEC) infrared
protocol.

ACTIVITY 8

Tariq has a home network and wants to add some new smart devices.
Tariq wants:

⚫ the two existing PCs in the upstairs office in his house to remain connected
using
a wireless connection

⚫ the existing laptop to be connected using Wi-Fi

⚫ a WAP to allow any new devices that have wireless capabilities to be
connected
the new smart bulbs to be connected using ZigBee®
⚫ the new smart refrigerator to be connected using ZigBee®

⚫ a powerline connection between the router in the downstairs lounge and

the PCs in the
upstairs office.

Draw a diagram to show a network design that will meet Tariq's

requirements.

NETWORK PROTOCOLS
There is a further set of protocols that are used to govern the transmission of
data across a network:

open systems interconnection (OSI) model

transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP)

voice over internet protocol (VOIP)

session initiation protocol (SIP).

OSI model
The OSI model is a framework that was developed in 1984. It is a theoretical
framework that can be used as the basis for structuring the transmission of
data from one computer to another across a network. The OSI model divides
the protocol into 'layers, with each having a specific function. Data is passed
from one layer to the next. Many other protocols are based on some of the
layers of the OSI model. Table 2.7 shows the seven layers of the OSI model.
54 TOPIC 2
NETWORKS

TABLE 2.7: THE OSI MODEL

Layer Application (7)

Description
This is the top layer in the framework. This layer directly interacts with data
from a user. It receives the data from the user and displays the data for the
user. Software applications such as a word processor are not part of the
application layer. However, software such as web browsers and email clients
are part of the application layer. The application layer provides several
protocols that are used in the transmission of data, including the hypertext
transfer protocol (HTTP) and the file transfer protocol (FTP). Presentation (6)
This layer of the framework prepares data for use in the application layer. It
makes sure that data is in the correct format for the intended device. This
could involve encoding, encrypting or compressing the data.
Session (5)

Transport (4)
Network (3)

EXAM TIP

There is a quick phrase you

can say to remember the
Data link (2)
first letter of each of the layers.
All People Seem To Need
Data Processing
All - Application
People - Presentation
Seem - Session
To-Transport
Need - Network
Data - Data link
Processing - Physical

KEY TERM

TCP/IP model: a protocol that is used to transmit data across the internet
Physical (1)

TCP/IP model
The role of this layer of the framework is to create channels of communication
(called sessions) between devices. It is responsible for opening a session,
making sure it's open for long enough to transmit the data, then closing the
session.
This layer takes the data that is transmitted in the session layer and breaks it
down into segments to prepare it for transmission, and it also reassembles the
segments after the data has been transmitted.

The transport layer is also responsible for sending the data at the speed that
the network is prepared for. It also checks the data for errors and requests
any data be re-sent when errors are found.
The role of this layer is to take the segments of data from the transport layer
and break them down into smaller units called packets of data.
It reassembles received packets back into the segments required by the
transport layer.
This layer is also responsible for finding the best route for the packets of data
to travel across the networks. It normally does this using a router.
The role of this layer is similar to the network layer. However, the network
layer is normally used when transmitting data between different networks,
for example across a LAN and a WAN. The data link layer is used when
transmitting data from one device to another within a single network, for
example a LAN. To do this it takes the packets of data created in the network
layer and converts them into frames. The frames are transmitted from the
sending device to the receiving device.
This layer has two sublayers:
⚫ logical link control - manages protocols and handles error checking
⚫ media access control - uses MAC addresses to connect devices.
This layer is all the wired cables or wireless connections that are made
between the devices in the network. The data is broken down into bits for the
layer so that it can be transmitted down a cable or across radio waves.

The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model. It was developed by the US
Department of Defense in the 1960s. TCP/IP is a protocol that has four layers
rather than the seven layers present in the OSI model. Table 2.8 shows the
four layers of TCP/IP.
TOPIC 2
NETWORKS

TABLE 2.8: THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL

Layer Application layer

Transport layer

SKILLS

ANALYSIS

KEY TERMS

SIP: a protocol that is used as part of VOIP VOIP: a protocol that is used to
send data when one person is making a voice call to another person using the
internet
► Applications like Skype and FaceTime use VOIP
Description
55

This layer incorporates the role of the application, presentation and session
layers from the OSI model.
This layer is the same as the transport layer in the OSI model. It uses the
transmission control protocol (TCP).
Network/internet layer This layer is the same as the network layer in the OSI
model. It uses
the internet protocol (IP).
Link/physical layer
This layer incorporates the role of the data link layer and the physical layer
from the OSI model.

TCP/IP is the main protocol used by devices communicating on the internet.

Each time data is sent from one device to another over the internet, the
TCP/IP model is used to prepare and send the data.

ACTIVITY 9

Use the internet to find out which protocols are used in the application layer
of TCP/IP.

VOIP and SIP

VOIP is a protocol that is used to send data when one person is making a voice
call to another person using the internet. VOIP was invented in 1995 and was
developed to allow people to use devices other than their mobile phone to
make a call. People use VOIP to make calls on devices such as a PC or laptop.
VOIP is responsible for converting a person's voice into digital data,
compressing it for transmission and then transmitting the data across the
internet.
VOIP involves the use of another protocol called SIP. SIP has the same
responsibilities as a protocol in the application layer of the OSI model.
56 TOPIC 2
SKILLS

ANALYSIS

KEY TERM

dynamic host
configuration protocol (DHCP): a protocol that
is used to assign an IP
address to a device when it is connected to a network
NETWORKS

NETWORK DESIGN

ADDRESSING IN A NETWORK
If someone sends you a letter in the post, how does that letter get to you? How
does the postal service or delivery company know where to send it? They use
your address! Each device that is part of a network also has an address. They
actually have two different addresses. These addresses are used for the same
purpose as your address at home - to make sure that information can be sent
to the correct destination. The two addresses are:

a MAC address

an IP address.

MAC address
A MAC address can be used to identify a device in a network. The MAC address
is assigned by the manufacturer of the device when it is being made. The MAC
address is actually given to the NIC that is built into the device.
A MAC address has several features.

Each address is unique.

It is written in hexadecimal.

It has 12 digits and the digits are grouped in pairs.

Each pair of digits is separated by a colon.

The first three pairs of digits are the manufacturer's ID

The second three pairs are the serial number of the device.

An example of a MAC address is:

3C:5A:B4:01:63:D2

A MAC address is normally used in a LAN when data is sent from one device to
another within the LAN. The MAC addresses of the sending device and the
receiving device are included in every packet of data that is transmitted across
the network. You learnt earlier in this topic that it is a switch in a network that
reads the packet of data to find the receiver's MAC address and forwards the
packet on to this device.

ACTIVITY 10

Find out what the MAC address is of the computer you are currently using. If
you are not using a computer at the moment, you could try and find out the
MAC address of another device, such as your smartphone.
You can use the internet to find out how to locate the MAC address of the
computer or device.

IP address
An IP address can also be used to identify a device in network. An IP address
is normally automatically assigned by a router in a home network when a
device is connected. The router normally does this using the dynamic host
configuration protocol (DHCP). When a device connects to a network, a
request is sent to the router to assign the device a unique IP address. The
DHCP service on the router manages this process. In the networks of large
organisations, for example a company, university or school, there will usually
be a dedicated DHCP server. This is done so that the router can concentrate on
what it does best, which is to route data
TOPIC 2
SKILLS

ANALYSIS
NETWORKS

packets. An IP address can also be assigned by an internet service provider

(ISP). This is the company that provides a user's internet connection.
An IP address has several features.

Each address is unique to the network that the device is connected to.

It can be static or dynamic.

• A static address means the device will always have the same IP address.
57

• A dynamic address means the IP address of a device can change each time it
connects to a network.

There are two different versions of IP addresses - IPv4 and IPv6. Table 2.9
shows the differences between them.

TABLE 2.9: FEATURES OF IPV4 AND IPV6

Features of the IPv4 format

32-bit address
Normally represented as denary Has four sets of digits
Each set of digits is separated by dots

Example address:
[Link]

ACTIVITY 11
Features of the IPv6 format
128-bit address
Normally represented as hexadecimal Has eight sets of digits
Each set of digits is separated by colons
A set of four 0 digits can be replaced by a double colon ::
Example address:
AB01:EF01:2368:BB30:4324:10DB:0455:BA10

or AB10:F1B1::AF00:3121::8998:FF22

Find out what the IP address is of the computer you are currently using. If you
are not using a computer at the moment, you could try and find out the IP
address of another device, such as your smartphone. Does the IP address look
like an IPv4 or IPv6 address? How do you know?
You can use the internet to find out how to locate the IP address of the
computer or device.

NETWORK SECURITY
When a device is connected to a network, the device and all the data stored on
the device become vulnerable. The data may be valuable, and there may be
people who will try and steal it or corrupt it for different reasons, such as:

fraud

identity theft

intellectual property theft

revenge

ethical protests

entertainment value.
58 TOPIC 2

KEY TERMS

authentication: a collection of security methods that are used

to verify the identity of a
user when they are trying
to access a device or an
account
hack: to gain unauthorised access to data
malware: a type of
malicious software that is
used to damage data or a device
NETWORKS

The two main threats that a device can be exposed to when connected to a
network are:
people who want to hack the device to steal the data stored on it

people who want to install malware on the device to corrupt the data stored
on it.

A user's device is particularly vulnerable when it is connected to an open

network. This is a network that is not secured and it can be used by anyone
that is in the local area. This type of network is normally a wireless network,
and they are often found in places like shopping malls and restaurants.

SECURITY SOLUTIONS
Security solutions can be put in place by a user or an organisation to help stop
a device being so vulnerable when connected to a network.

Authentication
One security solution that can be used is authentication. This is designed to
verify the identity of a user when they are trying to access a device, or an
account that the user may have, such as a social media account or a bank
account. Table 2.10 shows the three main types of authentication.

TABLE 2.10: TYPES OF AUTHENTICATION

Authentication type
Password

Two-factor
Biometrics
Description
This is a series of characters that a user needs to enter to be able to access the
device or the account. The user will initially set the password and then each
time they want to log in they will need to re-enter the password. Users are
normally encouraged to set strong passwords as they are more secure. This is
because they are harder for a hacker to guess. A strong password is one that is
long and complex, and often contains letters, numbers and symbols.
This is a method that requires a second verification from the user. This is
normally in the form of a numeric code that is sent to a user's device. The user
will log in to their account using a password, at which point a two-factor
authentication check is triggered. A code is sent to the user's device, for
example their mobile phone, and they then enter this code to gain access to
their account. This makes access to the account more secure, as a hacker
would need to have the user's phone to get the code. Two-factor
authentication is frequently used for online banking. This is a method that
requires a user's biological data to act as a password. Instead of a character-
based password, a person can use biological data like their fingerprint or
facial features as a password. This makes access more secure as it is very
difficult to fake a person's biological data. Some common examples of
biometrics are a fingerprint scanner, iris scanner, facial recognition software
and voice recognition software. You may use a fingerprint scanner or facial
recognition software to unlock your phone.
TOPIC 2
Biometric security devices
can use data such as facial features, a fingerprint or a person's voice as a
password

KEY TERMS

access rights: restrictions that are placed on who can see and edit data
anti-malware: software that scans a device and removes or quarantines
malware
security settings: ways that a user can control who can see or access data that
they store in an account
MORE
NETWORKS

wwwwww

Security settings
Go
59
Another security solution that can be used is to review the security settings of
a device or account. For example, a social media account will allow you to
change your security settings. You can change settings such as making more of
your data private so that it cannot be seen by other users. You can also change
settings like adding two-factor authentication to your account.

Access rights
Access rights are not designed to directly stop a hacker accessing an account.
They are designed to limit the data that the hacker can see. They are also
designed to limit the data seen by other people in an organisation, to make
sure that people only see the data that is relevant for their work. Access rights
are normally attached to a person's username. When the user logs in to their
account, the username will show the network server what data the user
should be allowed to see and what they can do with that data. Some people
may only be able to read the data. Some people may be able to also edit the
data. For example, the headteacher in a school may have different access
rights for students' data from the other teachers in the school. The
headteacher may be able to amend any student's data, but other teachers can
only see the student's data. This keeps the data more secure as it means it is
less likely to be accidentally deleted or corrupted by a person. It also means
that if a hacker does manage to hack into a person's account, they may not be
able to see all the data stored by the organisation.

Anti-malware
Another security solution that can be used is anti-malware. One of the main
threats of connecting to a network is having malware installed onto your
device. Malware is malicious software designed to damage your device or the
data stored on it. Common examples of malware are viruses, spyware, trojan
horses and ransomware. Malware is normally installed onto a device when a
user unknowingly downloads a malware-infected file from the internet. Anti-
malware is used to scan a device for malware. If it finds a file that it thinks is
malware installed onto the device, it can either delete it or quarantine it for
the user to review and delete. Some anti-malware can also scan a file that the
user wants to download. It can check to see if there is any malware present in
the file before the user downloads it. Anti-malware can help keep a device
more secure by protecting it from any malware threats. It is important to
regularly update any anti-malware that you use. This is because new malware
is being created all the time, so a regular update will inform your anti-
malware software about any new known malware.
60 TOPIC 2

▲A
NETWORKS

*********
Firewall
An additional security solution that can be added is a firewall. A firewall can
be hardware based or software based. A hardware firewall is a separate
device that is placed between the computer and the network. A software
firewall is software that is installed onto the computer. A firewall acts like a
security guard for data. A firewall examines all the data traffic coming into and
leaving a computer or network. It examines the traffic against a set of criteria.
These criteria can be set and changed by a user or network manager. The
criteria are a set of rules for the traffic. The firewall will accept the traffic and
let it through or block the traffic, depending on whether it meets or does not
meet the set criteria. An example of the type of criteria that can be set is a
blacklist and a whitelist of IP addresses. The blacklist is for IP addresses that
are
A firewall can help keep a computer safe by examining incoming not allowed
to send data to the network or devices in the network and outgoing traffic

KEY TERMS

encryption: a method of security that scrambles data to make it meaningless

firewall: a type of security setting that can be used to examine data incoming
and outgoing from a computer or network
physical controls:
physical security measures that can be used to keep data secure, such as CCTV
and locks on doors

LINKS
Symmetric encryption is covered in more detail in Topic 13 in Student Book 2.

SKILLS

CREATIVITY
that are not allowed to send data to those addresses. A whitelist is for IP
addresses that are allowed.

A firewall helps to protect a device from hackers and malware as these are
two things that can be recognised from the criteria set for a firewall. A
hardware firewall will examine all the data before it reaches the computer.
This is generally thought to be the safer method as it means that no malicious
traffic should actually get into the computer. A software firewall will allow
malicious data to enter the computer, but it will recognise it as malicious and
dismiss it from the computer.

Physical controls
A collection of security methods that are often used in workplaces such as an
office are called physical controls. Physical controls are things such as locks on
doors, alarm systems, keycard entry systems and CCTV cameras. Physical
controls help keep devices and data secure by acting as a deterrent for anyone
who tries to steal the device or gain access to the data.

Encryption
A final method of security that can be used is encryption. This is when data is
scrambled to make it meaningless. Data is encrypted using an algorithm called
an encryption key. Encryption can be symmetric or asymmetric. Symmetric
encryption uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt the data. Asymmetric
encryption uses different keys to encrypt and decrypt the data. A simple
symmetric encryption key could be that every letter in a text file is moved
three places forwards in the alphabet. The sentence 'ICT is awesome' would
then become 'LFW lv dzhvrph. Although encryption cannot stop data being
stolen, it keeps data more secure by making sure that if it is stolen by a hacker,
the hacker will not be able to understand the data as it will be meaningless.

ACTIVITY 12

Create a storyboard for an advert that could be displayed on a social media

website informing users of three different ways that they can help keep their
data safe.

If you are not sure how to create a storyboard, you can search online for
websites that can help you with this, such as [Link].
TOPIC 2
SKILLS

ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION
NETWORKS

THINKING LIKE AN IT SPECIALIST

61

Almost all companies use some kind of network to send and store data. These
networks can vary a lot in size and in the components that they contain.
How do you think a company that runs a nationwide chain of clothes shops
can decide what is needed in its network?

CHECKPOINT

1. What are two ways that devices can be connected using a wired
connection?
2. What are two ways that devices can be connected using a wireless
connection?

3. What is the role of a router in a network?

4. What is the role of a server in a network?

5. How many layers does the OSI model have?

6. What is the top layer of both the OSI model and the TCP/IP model?
7. What does it mean when a device is hacked?

8. What are two methods of authentication?

9. What is anti-malware used for?

10. What are two examples of physical controls that can be used to help keep
a network or
device secure?

EXAM PRACTICE

1. A computer is connected to a network using a cable. The computer has an

NIC. The
network uses both a switch and router and it has a client-server network
structure.

(a) State the role of the NIC.

[1 mark]
(b) Explain the differences between a switch and router.
[4 marks]
(c) The cable is a copper-based cable.
Which of these cables are copper-based? Write the correct letters in
your exercise book.
[1 mark]
A Twisted pair
B Fibre optic
C Powerline

D Coaxial

(d) Give two benefits of a client-server network structure.

[2 marks]

[2 marks]
[1 mark]
2. A student tethers their mobile phone to their laptop.
(a) Explain what is meant by tethering. (b) Give one drawback of tethering.
62 TOPIC 2
NETWORKS

3. The table contains terms and descriptions of network metrics.

Copy and complete the table with the missing terms and descriptions.

Term
[4 marks]

Description This is the maximum amount of data that can be transferred from
one device to another in a set amount of time.
Latency
This is the amount of data that actually passes through the network from one
device to another in a set amount of time.
Error rate

4. The OSI model is a model on which protocols are based. It has seven
different layers.
(a) Copy and complete the diagram to show the missing layers of the OSI
model. The
layers should be shown in order.

Application
[4 marks]

Transport

Physical
(b) Describe the role of the transport layer in the OSI model.
[3 marks]

5. An IP address can have an IPv4 or an IPv6 format.

Explain three differences between an IPv4 and IPv6 format.

[6 marks]
6. Explain how a firewall can be used to help keep data that is stored
on a computer safe.
[4 marks]
UNIT 1

TOPIC 3

THE ONLINE ENVIRONMENT

Many of us use the internet and the world wide web on a daily basis, but what
do we really know about them? In this topic you will learn about different
types of web pages and the scripting methods that are used to build them.
You will also learn about online environments and online communities, and
how they are used by people as places of work, places to share information
and places to connect about shared interests. When we use the internet, we
leave a digital footprint. You will learn how this happens and how we can
make sure that we are responsible about the digital footprint that we leave.
There are also risks to using the internet surrounding our personal data and
identity, and some of these risks are linked to cloud computing. You will learn
to recognise these risks, understand the impact they have and learn how to
keep yourself safe when online.
6
63