w

 if w  W0
TH BEST ( w) = T0 w
r if w  W TH PWC ( w) = rb 1
b 0 W0 + w − 1 TH WORST ( w) =
T0

T0 if w  W0 w −1
 CTPWC ( w) = T0 + CTWORST ( w) = w  T0
CTBEST ( w) =  w rb
 r if w  W0
 b

t0  e2
= c02 + A(1 − A)
mr m
te = c = 2
e 2
+ cr2 A(1 − A) r
A t e t0 t0

te = t0 +
ts
 = +
2 2  s2
+
(N s − 1) t 2
e 0 s
Ns Ns N s2
 e2
te =
t0
1− p
c = 2
e 2
(
= c 02 + p 1 − c 02 )
t e

u2
m = 1 c d2 = u 2 ce2 + (1 − u 2 )c a2 m  1 c d2 = 1 + (1 − u 2 )(c a2 − 1) + (ce2 − 1)
m
2 ( m +1) −1
 c 2 + ce2  u 
CTq =  a  t
 m(1 − u )  e
 2  

WIPP =
u
−
(b + 1)u b +1
; TH =
1− ub
ra WIPP =
b
; TH =
b
ra
1− u 1 − u b +1 1 − u b +1 2 b +1

min WIPnb , b − 1
=
WIPnb − u 1 − u b −1 WIP  min WIPnb , b − 1 CT 
TH  ra TH
WIPnb 1 − u 2  b −1
WIPRnb − 1 min WIPnb , b − 1
1
R = = u 1 − u b −1 WIP  min WIPnb , b − 1 CT 
 WIPRnb TH  ra TH
1 − u 2  b −1

ca2 + ce2 + 2(b − 1)

TH 
(
2 ca2 + ce2 + b − 1
re
)
 CUTTING SPEED v External milling Internal milling Drilling Centering Facing
[m/min] Roughing Finishing Roughing Finishing
C40 Steel 120 - 160 120 - 240 40 60 20 - 25 30 - 70 150 - 240
Cast Iron 50 65 20 30 20 30 - 70 40 - 60
Aluminum 300 500 150 200 140 30 - 70 250 - 400

FEED f External milling Internal milling Drilling Facing

[mm/rev] Roughing Finishing Roughing Finishing 8-15 mm 16-25mm
C40 Steel 0.1 - 0.4 0.05 - 0.2 0.03 - 0.3 0.05 - 0.2 0.05 - 0.20 0.1 - 0.28 0.2 - 0.3
Cast Iron 0.1 - 0.6 0.05 - 0.2 0.05 - 0.5 0.05 - 0.3 0.05 - 0.14 0.1 - 0.20 0.2 - 0.3
Aluminum 0.1 - 0.8 0.05 - 0.2 0.05 - 0.4 0.05 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.25 0.32 - 0.4 0.2 - 0.6

Cutting speed v = π D n / 1000 Feed speed vf = Z f n Cutting depth d = 0.4 - 4 mm

M02 Program end

M03 Start clockwise spindle rotation
M04 Start counter clockwise spindle rotation
M05 Stop rotation of the spindle
M06 Tool change
M07 Coolant ON 1
M08 Coolant ON 2
M09 Coolant stop
M30 Program end

G20/G70 Measurements in inches

G21/G71 Measurements in millimeters
G40 Tool radius compensation deleted
G41 D _ Left compensation of the tool radius
G42 D _ Right compensation of the tool radius
G43 Tool lenght compensation along positive direction
G44 Tool lenght compensation along negative direction
G54-G59 Shift of the reference system origin
G80 Fixed cycle cancelled
G81 X_ Y_ Z_ R_ F_ Drill cycle
G82 X_ Y_ Z_ R_ P_ F_ Drill cycle with pause
G90/G91 Absolute/Incremental coordinates
G00 X_ Y_ Z_ Rapid positioning
G01 X_ Y_ Z_ F_ Linear interpolation
G02 X_ Y_ Z_ R_ I_ J_ K_ F_ Clockwise circular interpolation
G03 X_ Y_ Z_ R_ I_ J_ K_ F_ Counter clockwise circular interpolation
H = ρ V [(Cs(Tm‐T0) + H = total heat [J]; ρ = density [ g/cm3]; V = volume [cm3]; Cs =
+ Hf + Cl(Tp‐Tm)] weight specific heat (solid) [J/g °C]; Tp , Tm , T0 = pouring, melting
ρgh1+p1+ρv12/2+F1 = and room temperature [°C]; Hf = heat of fusion [J/g]; Cl = weight
specific heat (liquid) [J/g°C]; h = height [cm]; p = pressure
= ρgh2+p2+ρv22/2+F2
[N/cm2]; ρ = density [g/cm3]; v = velocity [cm/s]; F = head losses
Q = v1A1 = v2A2 [N/cm2]; g = gravity [981 cm/s2]; Q = flow rate [cm3/s]; A = cross
TMF = V/Q sectional area [cm3]; Re = Reynold number []; TMF = Filling time
Re = vDρ/η [s]; D = diameter [cm]; ρ = density [g/cm3]; η = viscosity [Pa·s]; TTS
(Re<20000 Acceptable) = total solidification time [min]; A = surface area [cm2]; Cm =
TTS = Cm(V/S)n mold constant; n = mold exponent;

d = t0‐tf ; r = d/t0 d = draft [mm]; to , tf = starting and final thickness

t0 w0 L0 = tf wf Lf ; [mm]; Lo , Lf = starting and final length [mm]; wo , wf =
t0 w0 v0 = tf wf vf starting and final width [mm]; r = reduction; L =
contact length [mm]; μ = friction coefficient; θ =
L= angle of contact [rad]; R = rolls radius [mm]; ε = true
μ > tanθ ; dmax = μ2R strain; Yf = average flow stress [MPa]; K = strength
ε = ln(t0/tf) ; / 1 coefficient [MPa]; n = strain hardening coefficient; F =
F= ; T = F(L/2) ; P = 2πNFL force [N]; T = torque [Nm]; P = power [W]; N =
rotational speed [s‐1]

ε = ln(h0/h) ε = true strain; h = height [mm]; Yf = flow stress [MPa]; K = strength

Y f = K εn coefficient [MPa]; n = strain hardening coefficient; F = force [N]; A =
F = K f Yf A area [mm2]; Kf = shape factor []; μ = friction coefficient; D = diameter
[mm];
Kf = 1+0.4μD/h

rx = A0/Af ; ε = ln(rx) rx = extrusion ratio; Ao , Af = starting and final cross‐sectional area

/ 1 [mm2]; ε = true strain; Yf = average flow stress [MPa]; K = strength
coefficient [MPa]; n = strain hardening coefficient; p = pressure
p = ln [MPa]; εd = true strain with redundant work (a=0.8, b=1.2‐1.5); pd
εd = a+b ln(rx) = pressure with redundant work [MPa]; L = billet length [mm}; D0 =
pd = 2 ⁄ billet diameter [mm]; F = force [N]; P = power [W]; v = ram speed
F = p A0 ; P = F v [mm/s]

d = D0‐Df ; r = A0‐Af/A0 d = draft; r = reduction; Do , Df = starting and final

ε = ln(A0/Af) ; / 1 diameter [mm2]; Ao , Af = starting and final cross‐
sectional area [mm2]; D = average diameter [mm];
D = (D0+Df)/2 ; Lc = (D0‐Df)/(2sinα)
Lc = contact length [mm]; α = die angle [rad]; ε =
1 ⁄tan ln ⁄ true strain; Yf = average flow stress [MPa]; K =
= 0.88+0.12(D/Lc); strength coefficient [MPa]; n = strain hardening
F = Af σd coefficient; σd = draw stress [MPa]; F = force [N];
c = at c = clearance [mm]; a = allowance (Aluminum alloys 0.045; Hard
Punch: Db‐2c; Die: Db aluminum, soft steel 0.060; steel 0.075); t = stock thickness [mm];
Punch: Dh; Die: Dh+2c Db = blank diameter [mm]; Dh = punch diameter [mm]; F = force
[N]; S = shear strength [MPa]; L = length of cut [mm]; TS = ultimate
F = S t L = TS t L
tensile strenght [MPa];

Ab = 2π(α/360)(R+Kbat) Ab = bend allowance [mm];  = bend angle [deg]; R = bend radius

F = (Kbf TS w t2)/D [mm]; t = stock thickness; Kba = stretching factor (Kba = 0.33 when
R < 2t , Kba = 0.50 when R  2t); F = force [N]; TS = tensile
strength [MPa]; w = width [mm]; Kbf = bending factor (Kbf = 1.33
for V‐bending, Kbf = 0.33 for edge bending);

c = 1.1 t c = clearance [mm]; t = stock thickness [mm]; DR =

DR = Db/Dp ≤ 2 Drawing ratio; r = reduction; Db = blank diameter
r = (Db‐Dp/Db) ≤ 0.50 [mm]; Dp = punch diameter [mm]; F drawing force
[N]; TS tensile strength [Mpa]; Db , Dp blank and
t/Db ≥ 0.01
punch diameter [mm]; Fh holding force [N]; Y yield
F = πDpt[(Db/Dp)‐0.7]TS strength [MPa]; Rd = die corner radius [mm];
Fh =0.015Yπ[Db2‐(Dp+2.2t+2Rd2)]

PD = P/A ≥ 10 PD = power density [W/mm2]; P = power entering surface [W]; A =

Um = K·(Tm)2 surface area [mm2]; Um = Unit Energy for melting [J/mm3]; Tm =
Hw = f1 f2 H = Um V absolute temperature of the melting point [K] (K = 3.33∙10‐6); Hw =
net heat energy [J]; f1 = heat transfer efficiency; f2 = melting
RHw = f1 f2 RH = Um Aw v
efficiency; H = total heat generated [J]; V = volume of metal
melted [mm3]; RHw = rate of heat energy for welding [J/s],
RH = rate of energy generated [W], Aw = weld cross‐sectional area
[mm2], v = travel velocity [mm/s]

Qx = Qd – Qb = Ks·p Qx = extruder flow [m3/s]; Qd = drag flow; Qb ) = back

Qd = = 0.5·π2·D 2·N·dc·sinA·cosA pressure flow ; dc = channel depth [m]; D = screw
diameter [m]; N = screw rotational speed [rev/s], A =
flight angle [rad]; η = viscosity [Ns/m2]; dp/dl = pressure
12 gradient [Mpa/m] (Note: dp/dl = p/L where p = head
Qmax = Qd pressure in the barrel [MPa], L = length of the barrel
pmax = 6·π·D·N·L·η·cotA/dc2 [m]); Ks = shape factor of extruder die [m5/Ns]; Dd = die
opening diameter [m]; Ld = die length [m];
128