Chapter 03

Lecture Outline
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 CELL
-determine the form and functions of human
body
-basic unit of all organism

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 Functions
• Synthesis of molecules
e.g proteins, lipid
• Communication
-produce and receive chemical and electrical
signal
• Cell metabolism and energy release
-chemical reaction
• Reproduction and inheritance (DNA)
- copy of genetic information
e.g sperm cell and oocytes 4
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The Cell
 Cell Structure
• Organelles:
- specialized structures in cells that perform
specific functions (little organ)
- Ex. Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, etc.

• Cytoplasm:
-living material that surrounds the nucleus
- contain many types of organelles

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 Cell Membrane
• What is it?
outermost component of a cell

• Functions:
- selective barrier
- encloses cytoplasm

• Extracellular: material outside cell

• Intracellular: material inside cell
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Cell Membrane
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Movement through Cell Membrane
• Cell membrane selectively determines what can
pass in and out of the cell.

• Enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in

higher concentrations INSIDE the cell.

• Sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher

concentrations OUTSIDE the cell.

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Ways molecules Pass through Cell Membrane
1. Directly through (diffusion):
O2 and CO2 (small molecules)
2. Membrane channels:
- proteins that extend from one side of cell
membrane to other
- size, shape, and charge (+/-) determine what can
go through
- Ex. Na+ passes through Na+ channels

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3. Carrier molecules:
- bind to molecules, transport them across, and
drop them off
- Ex. glucose

4. Vesicles:
- can transport a variety of materials
- fuse with cell membrane

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Na+
Please update to 9e
copyright

K+ leak
K+ channel Gated Na+ Gated Na+
(always open) channel (closed) channel
(open)

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 Diffusion
• What is it?
movement of molecules from areas of high to low
concentration
• Solution:
solid, liquid, or gas that contains one or more solutes
• Solute:
substance added to solvent that dissolves
• Solvent:
substance such as H2O that solute is being added to

Ex. Add salt to H2O. H2O =solvent, salt=solute,

mixture=solution
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• Concentration gradient:
- measures conc. difference at 2 points
- greater the distance the faster the solute
will travel

• Filtration:
movement of fluid through a partition with holes

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 Mediated Transport Mechanisms
• Facilitated diffusion:
- diffusion with aid of a carrier molecule
- requires no ATP

• Active transport:
- moves substances from low to high conc.
- requires ATP
- Ex. Sodium-potassium pump
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Na+–K+
pump
1 Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) bind to the
sodium–potassium (Na+–K+) pump.

Na
+
ATP
1

Na+–K+ pump
changes shape Na
+
(requires energy). K
+
2 The ATP breaks down to adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) and a phosphate (P) and releases energy.
That energy is used to power the shape change in the
Na+–K+ pump.

2
ADP

3 The Na+–K+ pump changes shape, and the Na+ are 3

transported across the membrane and into the
Na K 4
extracellular fluid. +
+

4 Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+–K+ pump.

5
5 The phosphate is released from the Na+–K+ pump P
binding site.

Na+–K+ pump
resumes original
shape.
6 The Na+–K+ pump changes shape, transporting K+
across the membrane and into the cytoplasm. The
Na+–K+ pump can again bind to Na+ and ATP.

6 K+

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Carrier
molecule

Na+–K+
pump Na+
2 Glucose
1

K
+
Na+
Glucose

1 A Na+–K+ pump maintains a concentration of Na+ that is higher

outside
the cell than inside.
2 Na+ move back into the cell by a carrier molecule that also moves
glucose.
The concentration gradient for Na+ provides the energy required to move
glucose, by cotransport, against its concentration gradient.
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 Osmosis
• What is it?
diffusion of water across a cell membrane

• Osmotic pressure:
force required to prevent movement of water across
cell membrane

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* Because the tube contains salt ions

(green and pink spheres) as well
as water molecules (blue spheres),
there is proportionately less
water in the tube than in the beaker,
which contains only water. The
water molecules diffuse with their
concentration gradient into the
tube (blue arrows). Because the
salt ions cannot leave the
tube, the total fluid volume inside
the tube increases, and fluid moves
up the glass tube (black arrow) as a
result of osmosis.

3% salt solution
Weight
Selectively of water
permeable Salt solution column
membrane rising
The solution
stops rising when
the weight of the
water column
prevents further
movement of
water into the
tube by osmosis.

Distilled
water
Water Osmosis
1 The end of a tube 2 The tube is immersed in 3 Water moves by osmosis into
containing a 3% salt distilled water. Water the tube until the weight of
solution (green) is closed moves into the tube by the column of water in the
at one end with a osmosis (see inset above*). tube (hydrostatic pressure)
selectively permeable The concentration of salt in prevents further movement
membrane, which allows the tube decreases as of water into the tube. The
water molecules to pass water rises in the tube hydrostatic pressure that
through but retains the (lighter green color ). prevents net movement of
salt ions within the tube. water into the tube is equal
to the osmotic pressure of
the solution in the tube.
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 Types of Osmotic Solutions
• Hypotonic solution:
- lower conc. of solutes outside cell
- higher conc. of H2O outside cell
- H2O moves into cell
- lysis (burst)
• Hypertonic solution:
- higher conc. of solutes outside cell
- higher conc. H2O inside cell
- H2O moves out
- crenation (shrinks) 25
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• Isotonic solution:
- equal conc. of solutes
- water doesn’t move
- cell remains intact

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 Endocytosis
• What is it?
process that brings materials into cell using
vesicles
• 2 types
- Phagocytosis:
cell eating (solid particles)
- Pinocytosis:
cell drinking (liquid particles)

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 Exocytosis
• What is it?
process that carries materials out of cell
using vesicles

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Organelles
 Cell Structures
• Cytoplasm
Location: inside cell
Characteristic: jelly-like fluid
Function: give cell shape and hold organelles in
place
• Nucleus
Location: center of cell
Characteristic: all cells contain nucleus at some
point
Function: houses DNA 34
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Nucleus
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• Nuclear envelope:
Location: edge of nucleus

• Nuclear pores:
Location: surface of nucleus
Function: where materials pass in and out of
nucleus

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Nucleus and Nuclear Envelope
Nuclear Pores
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• Chromosome:
Location: inside nucleus
Characteristic: made of DNA and proteins
Function: part of genetic makeup

• Chromatin:
Location: inside nucleus
Characteristic: loosely coiled chromosomes

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• Nucleolus
Location: in nucleus
Function: produce ribosomes

• Ribosome
Location: attached to RER or cytoplasm
Function: produce proteins

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Nucleolus
Membrane-bound Ribosomes
Free Ribosomes
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1 Ribosomal proteins, produced in
the rRNA
cytoplasm, are transported through Nucleolu
nuclear pores into the nucleolus. s

2 rRNA, most of which is produced in the

nucleolus, is assembled with ribosomal
proteins to form small and large 2
ribosomal Nucleu
subunits. s
3 The small and large ribosomal
subunits DNA
leave the nucleolus and the nucleus (chromatin)
through nuclear pores.

4 The small and large subunits, now in

Nuclear
the
pore
cytoplasm, combine with each other
and 3
with mRNA during protein synthesis.
Large
ribosoma
1 l
unit
Small
Ribosomal ribosoma
proteins l 4
from unit
cytoplasm

mRNA
Ribosom
e

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• RER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum)
Location: cytoplasm
Characteristic: membranes with ribosomes attached
Function: site of protein synthesis

• SER (Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum)

Location: cytoplasm
Characteristic: membranes with no ribosomes
Function: site of lipid synthesis (Ex. Cholesterol)

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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
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• Golgi apparatus
Location: cytoplasm
Characteristic: closely, packed stacks of
membranes
Function: collect, sort, package, and distribute
proteins and lipids

• Secretory vesicle
Location: cytoplasm
Function: distributes materials out of cell
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Golgi Complex
 cis- and trans-Face of Golgi Complex

cis-face trans-face
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• Lysosome
Location: cytoplasm
Function: enzymes that digest foreign material

• Mitochondria
Location: cytoplasm
Characteristic: contains folds (cristae)
Function: produces ATP

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Lysosomes
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Mitochondrion
Cristae of Mitochondrion
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• Cilia
Location: cell surface
Characteristic: many per cell
Function: move materials across cell’s surface

• Flagella
Location: cell surface
Characteristic: 1 per cell
Function: move cell, Ex. sperm

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Cilia
• Microvilli
Location: cell surface
Characteristic: shorter than cilia
Function: increase surface area

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Microvilli
 Cytoskeleton
• What is it?
- cell’s framework
- made of proteins

• Functions:
- provide support
- hold organelles in place
- enable cell to change shape
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Types of Cytoskeleton
• Microtubules:
- largest diameter
- provide structural support
- form cilia and flagella
• Intermediate filaments:
- medium diameter
- maintain cell shape
• Microfilaments:
- smallest diameter
- involved in cell movement 67
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 Cytoskeleton

Microfilaments Intermediate Filaments Microtubules

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Centriole
(in cross
section)

Centriole
(in longitudinal
section)
Microtubule
triplet

TEM 60,000x
(a) (b)
(b): © Biology Media/Photo Researchers, Inc.

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 Whole Cell Activity
• A cell’s characteristics are determine by the
type of proteins produced

• Proteins’ function is determined by genetics

• Information in DNA provides the cell with a

code for its cellular processes

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 DNA
• What is it?
- double helix in nucleus
- composed of nucleotides
- contains 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose,
nitrogen base, phosphate

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 Flow of Genetic Information
• Also called Central Dogma
• Occurs in three stages:
– DNA replication
– Transcription
– Translation

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DNA Replication

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 Gene Expression
• What is it?
- information in DNA directs protein
synthesis
- proteins provide code for gene expression
- enzymes regulate chemical reactions
- uses transcription and translation

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 Transcription
• What is it?
- process by which DNA is “read”
- occurs in ribosomes
- produces mRNA (messenger RNA)
- mRNA contains codons
- codons: set of 3 nucleotide bases that code for
a particular amino acid

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 Translation
• What is it?
- process by mRNA is converted into amino
acids (polypeptides)
- produces proteins
- codons pair with anticodons
- anticodons: 3 nucleotide bases carried by tRNA

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 Cell Division
• What is it?
- formation of 2 daughter cells from a single
parent cell
- uses mitosis and meiosis
- each cell (except sperm and egg) contains
46 chromosomes (diploid)
- sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes

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 Mitosis
• What is it?
- cell division that occurs in all cells except
sex cells
- forms 2 daughter cells

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 Components of Mitosis
• Chromatid:
2 strands of chromosomes that are genetically
identical
• Centromere:
where 2 chromatids are connected
• Centrioles:
small organelle composed of 9 triplets

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 Stages in Mitosis
1. Interphase:
- time between cell divisions
- DNA is in strands (chromatin)
- DNA replication occurs
2. Prophase:
- chromatin condenses into chromosomes
- centrioles move to opposite ends

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3. Metaphase:
chromosomes align
4. Anaphase:
- chromatids separate to form 2 sets of
chromosomes
- chromosomes move towards centrioles
5. Telophase:
- chromosomes disperse
- nuclear envelopes and nucleoli form
- cytoplasm divides to form 2 cells
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